Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer
Responsive image
Issue: Vol. 3 No. 2: June (In progress) 2026
Type: Review
Published: 2026-06-05
DOI: 10.11646/mesozoic.3.2.1
Page range: 121-139
Abstract views: 32
PDF downloaded: 11

Lithium isotope constraints on Permian–Triassic continental weathering and multi-proxy comparison

State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy; Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Nanjing 210008; China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100049; China
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy; Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Nanjing 210008; China
Permian–Triassic boundary lithium isotopes continental weathering reverse weathering multi-proxy comparison intensity‑flux decoupling

Abstract

The Permian–Triassic transition (P–Tr, ca. 251.9 Ma) witnessed the most severe mass extinction of the Phanerozoic, triggered by intense volcanic activity and associated environmental catastrophes. Continental silicate weathering is central to understanding both the mechanisms of the extinction and the prolonged Early Triassic warmth, yet changes in its intensity and flux remain controversial. Lithium (Li) isotopes (δ7Li), a promising tracer of silicate weathering, have increasingly been applied to the P–Tr transition. However, δ7Li records from different sedimentary archives (marine carbonates, shales, cherts, and terrestrial clastic rocks) show stark discrepancies: some indicate rapid enhancement of chemical weathering, others invoke marine reverse weathering as the dominant control, and terrestrial evidence points to intensified physical erosion but suppressed chemical weathering. These contradictions arise because the marine δ7Li signal integrates multiple processes—continental weathering input, reverse weathering, and changes in the size of the oceanic Li reservoir—that cannot be disentangled by a single proxy. This review synthesises δ7Li records with the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), strontium (Sr) isotopes, osmium (Os) isotopes, and magnesium (Mg) isotopes across the P–Tr transition. We demonstrate a pronounced “intensity‑flux decoupling” in continental weathering, where traditional weathering indices (CIA) and terrestrial δ7Li indicate that chemical weathering intensity (measured as the chemical depletion fraction, W/D) did not increase globally and may have even decreased, while radiogenic Sr and Os isotopes record a sharp rise in the total terrigenous material flux. This paradox is reconciled with a regime of rapid physical erosion with limited chemical leaching, driven by vegetation collapse and a shortened hydrological cycle. Meanwhile, extreme Early Triassic marine δ7Li anomalies are largely controlled by enhanced reverse weathering and a likely reduced marine Li reservoir. A multi-proxy deconvolution framework thus allows a three-dimensional separation of weathering intensity, flux, and internal oceanic processes, offering a unified way to resolve current controversies. Future priorities include quantitative calibration of archive effects, systematic mapping of spatial heterogeneity, and numerical modelling of the marine Li cycle to advance quantitative understanding of Earth system crises in deep time.

References

  1. Adiatma, Y.D., Saltzman, M.R. & Liu, X.M. (2024) Lithium isotope stratigraphy and Ordovician weathering. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 647, 119030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.119030
  2. Algeo, T.J. & Twitchett, R.J. (2010) Anomalous Early Triassic sediment fluxes due to elevated weathering rates and their biological consequences. Geology, 38 (11), 1023–1026. https://doi.org/10.1130/G31203.1
  3. Banner, J.L. & Hanson, G.N. (1990) Calculation of simultaneous isotopic and trace element variations during water-rock interaction with applications to carbonate diagenesis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 54 (11), 3123–3137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(90)90128-8
  4. Cao, C., Bataille, C.P., Song, H.J., Saltzman, M.R., Cramer, K.T., Wu, H.C., Korte, C., Zhang, Z.F. & Liu, X.M. (2022) Persistent late Permian to Early Triassic warmth linked to enhanced reverse weathering. Nature Geoscience, 15, 832–838. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-01078-y
  5. Cao, C., Liu, X.M., Wang, X.K. & Chen, J. (2023) Effective use of limestones to reconstruct seawater Li isotope compositions—a community standard proposal. Chemical Geology, 626, 121441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121441
  6. Cao, Y., Song, H.Y., Algeo, T.J., Chu, D.L., Du, Y., Tian, L., Wang, Y.H. & Tong, J.N. (2019) Intensified chemical weathering during the Permian-Triassic transition recorded in terrestrial and marine successions. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 519, 166–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.06.012
  7. Capo, R.C., Stewart, B.W. & Chadwick, O.A. (1998) Strontium isotopes as tracers of ecosystem processes: theory and methods. Geoderma, 82 (1-3), 197–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(97)00102-X
  8. Chan, L.H., Gieskes, J.M., You, C.F. & Edmond, J.M. (1994) Lithium isotope geochemistry of sediments and hydrothermal fluids of the Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 58 (20), 4443–4454. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90346-8
  9. Chen, X.Y., Teng, F.Z., Huang, K.J. & Algeo, T.J. (2020) Intensified chemical weathering during Early Triassic revealed by magnesium isotopes. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 287, 263–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2020.02.035
  10. Chen, B., Chen, J., Qie, W., Huang, P., He, T., Joachimski, M.M. & Algeo, T.J. (2021) Was climatic cooling during the earliest Carboniferous driven by expansion of seed plants? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 565, 116953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2021.116953
  11. Chen, J., Guo, Y., Wei, H.B., Liu, H.Y., Ma, R.Y., Xiao, Z. & Feng, Z. (2022) Evaluation of chemical weathering proxies by comparing drilled cores versus outcrops and weathering history during the Permian–Triassic transition. Global and Planetary Change, 214, 103855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103855
  12. Chen, J.B., Lu, B.J., Du, L.Y., Lin, M., Shen, S.Z., Montañez, I.P. & Feng, Z. (2025) Regional postdeforestation weathering feedback drove diachronous C-S cycle perturbations during the end-Permian crisis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122 (44), e2504841122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2504841122
  13. Clarkson, M.O., Wood, R.A., Poulton, S.W., Richoz, S., Newton, R.J., Kasemann, S.A., Bowyer, F. & Krystyn, L. (2016) Dynamic anoxic ferruginous conditions during the end-Permian mass extinction and recovery. Nature Communications, 7, 12236. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12236
  14. Cohen, A.S., Coe, A.L., Harding, S.M. & Schwark, L. (2004) Osmium isotope evidence for the regulation of atmospheric CO2 by continental weathering. Geology, 32 (2), 157–160. https://doi.org/10.1130/G20158.1
  15. Dal Corso, J., Song, H.J., Callegaro, S., Chu, D.L., Sun, Y.D., Hilton, J., Grasby, S.E., Joachimski, M.M. & Wignall, P.B. (2022) Environmental crises at the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 3, 197–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00259-4
  16. Dellinger, M., Gaillardet, J., Bouchez, J., Calmels, D., Galy, V., Hilton, R.G., Louvat, P. & France-Lanord, C. (2014) Lithium isotopes in large rivers reveal the cannibalistic nature of modern continental weathering and erosion. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 401, 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.061
  17. Dellinger, M., Gaillardet, J., Bouchez, J., Calmels, D., Louvat, P., Dosseto, A., Gorge, C., Alanoca, L. & Maurice, L. (2015) Riverine Li isotope fractionation in the Amazon River basin controlled by the weathering regimes. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 164, 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2015.04.042
  18. Dellinger, M., Hardisty, D.S., Planavsky, N.J., Gill, B.C., Kalderon‑Asael, B., Asael, D., Croissant, T., Swart, P.K. & West, A.J. (2020) The effects of diagenesis on lithium isotope ratios of shallow marine carbonates. American Journal of Science, 320 (2), 150–184. https://doi.org/10.2475/02.2020.03
  19. Dellinger, M., West, A.J., Paris, G., Adkins, J.F., Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Ullmann, C.V., Eagle, R.A., Freitas, P., Bagard, M.L., Ries, J.B., Corsetti, F.A., Perez‑Huerta, A. & Kampf, A.R. (2018) The Li isotope composition of marine biogenic carbonates: Patterns and mechanisms. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 236, 315–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2018.03.014
  20. Dudás, F., Yuan, D.X., Shen, S.Z. & Bowring, S.A. (2017) A conodont‑based revision of the 87Sr/86Sr seawater curve across the Permian‑Triassic boundary. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 470, 40–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.01.007
  21. Fan, J.X., Shen, S.Z., Erwin, D.H., Sadler, P.M., MacLeod, N., Cheng, Q.M., Hou, X.D., Yang, J., Wang, X.D., Wang, Y., Zhang, H., Chen, X., Li, G.X., Zhang, Y.C., Shi, Y.K., Yuan, D.X., Chen, Q., Zhang, L.N., Li, C. & Zhao, Y.Y. (2020) A high‑resolution summary of Cambrian to Early Triassic marine invertebrate biodiversity. Science, 367 (6475), 273–277. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax4953
  22. Fedo, C.M., Nesbitt, H.W. & Young, G.M. (1995) Unraveling the effects of potassium metasomatism in sedimentary rocks and paleosols, with implications for paleoweathering conditions and provenance. Geology, 23 (10), 921–924. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0921:UTEOPM>2.3.CO;2
  23. Feng, Z., Wei, H.B., Guo, Y., He, X.Y., Sui, Q., Zhou, Y., Liu, H.Y., Gou, X.D. & Lv, Y. (2020) From rainforest to herbland: New insights into land plant responses to the end‑Permian mass extinction. Earth‑Science Reviews, 204, 103153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103153
  24. Garbelli, C., Cipriani, A., Brand, U., Lugli, F. & Posenato, R. (2022) Strontium isotope stratigraphic insights on the end‑Permian mass extinction and the Permian‑Triassic boundary in the Dolomites (Italy). Chemical Geology, 605, 120946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.120946
  25. Georg, R.B., West, A.J., Vance, D., Newman, K. & Halliday, A.N. (2013) Is the marine osmium isotope record a probe for CO2 release from sedimentary rocks? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 367, 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.02.018
  26. Georgiev, S.V., Stein, H.J., Hannah, J.L., Henderson, C.M. & Algeo, T.J. (2015) Enhanced recycling of organic matter and Os‑isotopic evidence for multiple magmatic or meteoritic inputs to the Late Permian Panthalassic Ocean, Opal Creek, Canada. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 150, 192–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2014.11.019
  27. Georgiev, S.V., Stein, H.J., Yang, G., Hannah, J.L., Böttcher, M.E., Grice, K., Holman, A., Turgeon, S., Simonsen, S. & Cloquet, C. (2020) Late Permian‑Early Triassic environmental changes recorded by multi‑isotope (Re‑Os‑N‑Hg) data and trace metal distribution from the Hovea‑3 section, Western Australia. Gondwana Research, 88, 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2020.07.007
  28. Hathorne, E. & James, R. (2006) Temporal record of lithium in seawater: A tracer for silicate weathering? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 246 (3-4), 393–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.04.020
  29. Hayashi, K., Fujisawa, H., Holland, H.D. & Ohmoto, H. (1997) Geochemistry of similar to 1.9 Ga sedimentary rocks from northeastern Labrador, Canada. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 61 (19), 4115–4137. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00214-7
  30. Hindshaw, R.S., Tosca, R., Goût, T.L., Farnan, I., Tosca, N.J. & Tipper, E.T. (2019) Experimental constraints on Li isotope fractionation during clay formation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 250, 219–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2019.02.015
  31. Hu, Z.Y., Li, W.Q., Zhang, H., Krainer, K., Zheng, Q.F., Xia, Z.G., Hu, W.X. & Shen, S.Z. (2021) Mg isotope evidence for restriction events within the Paleotethys ocean around the Permian‑Triassic transition. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 556, 116704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116704
  32. Huang, T.Z., Shen, B., Huang, K.J., Ning, M., Li, C., Xue, J.Z., Sun, Y.L. & Huang, B.Q. (2024) Revisiting the Mg isotopic systematics of siliciclastic components of sediments and sedimentary rocks: A new geochemical proxy of continental weathering in Earth’s history. Science China‑Earth Sciences, 67 (2), 620–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-023-1199-2
  33. Huh, Y., Chan, L.H. & Edmond, J.M. (2001) Lithium isotopes as a probe of weathering processes: Orinoco River. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 194 (1-2), 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00523-4
  34. Jiao, S.L., Zhang, H., Cai, Y.F., Chen, J.B., Feng, Z. & Shen, S.Z. (2023) Collapse of tropical rainforest ecosystems caused by high‑temperature wildfires during the end‑Permian mass extinction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 614, 118193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118193
  35. Joachimski, M.M., Lai, X., Shen, S., Jiang, H., Luo, G., Chen, B., Chen, J. & Sun, Y. (2012) Climate warming in the latest Permian and the Permian‑Triassic mass extinction. Geology, 40 (3), 195–198. https://doi.org/10.1130/G32707.1
  36. Jurikova, H., Gutjahr, M., Wallmann, K., Flögel, S., Liebetrau, V., Posenato, R., Angiolini, L., Garbelli, C., Brand, U., Wiedenbeck, M. & Eisenhauer, A. (2020) Permian-Triassic mass extinction pulses driven by major marine carbon cycle perturbations. Nature Geoscience, 13, 745–750. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-00646-4
  37. Korte, C., Jasper, T., Kozur, H.W. & Veizer, J. (2006) 87Sr/86Sr record of Permian seawater. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 240 (1-2), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.047
  38. Korte, C., Kozur, H.W., Bruckschen, P. & Veizer, J. (2003) Strontium isotope evolution of Late Permian and Triassic seawater. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 67 (1), 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(02)01035-9
  39. Lau, K.V., Maher, K., Altiner, D., Kelley, B.M., Kump, L.R., Lehrmann, D.J., Silva‑Tamayo, J.C., Weaver, K.L., Yu, M.Y. & Payne, J.L. (2016) Marine anoxia and delayed Earth system recovery after the end‑Permian extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113 (9), 2360–2365. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1515080113
  40. Lemarchand, E., Chabaux, F., Vigier, N., Millot, R. & Pierret, M.C. (2010) Lithium isotope systematics in a forested granitic catchment (Strengbach, Vosges Mountains, France). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 74 (16), 4612–4628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.04.057
  41. Li, G. & West, A.J. (2014) Evolution of Cenozoic seawater lithium isotopes: Coupling of global denudation regime and shifting seawater sinks. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 401, 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.06.011
  42. Liao, Z.W., Hu, W.X., Cao, J., Wang, X.L., Yao, S.P., Wu, H.G. & Wan, Y. (2016) Heterogeneous volcanism across the Permian‑Triassic Boundary in South China and implications for the Latest Permian Mass Extinction: New evidence from volcanic ash layers in the Lower Yangtze Region. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 127, 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.003
  43. Ling, M.X., Sedaghatpour, F., Teng, F.Z., Hays, P.D., Strauss, J. & Sun, W.D. (2011) Homogeneous magnesium isotopic composition of seawater: an excellent geostandard for Mg isotope analysis. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 25 (19), 2828–2836. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.5172
  44. Liu, C., Jiang, T.E., Yang, Y. & Ma, J. (2023) Temporal and spatial variations of high‑resolution strontium, carbon, and oxygen isotopic chemostratigraphy at the end‑Permian crisis boundary in South China. Gondwana Research, 113, 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2022.10.015
  45. Liu, X.Y., Krause, A.J., Wilson, D.J., Fraser, W.T., Joachimski, M.M., Brand, U., Stigall, A.L., Qie, W.K., Chen, B., Yang, X.R. & Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E. (2025) Lithium isotope evidence shows Devonian afforestation may have significantly altered the global silicate weathering regime. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 396, 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2025.02.036
  46. Liu, Z.Y. & Selby, D. (2021) Deep‑water osmium‑isotope record of the Permian‑Triassic interval from Niushan, China reveals potential delayed volcanic signal post the mass extinction. Global and Planetary Change, 200, 103473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103473
  47. Liu, Z.Y., Selby, D., Zhang, H. & Shen, S.Z. (2020) Evidence for volcanism and weathering during the Permian‑Triassic mass extinction from Meishan (South China) osmium isotope record. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 553, 109790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109790
  48. Mackenzie, F.T. & Kump, L.R. (1995) Reverse Weathering, Clay Mineral Formation, and Oceanic Element Cycles. Science, 270 (5236), 586. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5236.586
  49. McLennan, S.M. & Taylor, S.R. (1991) Sedimentary Rocks and Crustal Evolution: Tectonic Setting and Secular Trends. Journal of Geology, 99 (1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1086/629470
  50. Misra, S. & Froelich, P.N. (2012) Lithium Isotope History of Cenozoic Seawater: Changes in Silicate Weathering and Reverse Weathering. Science, 335 (6070), 818–823. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1214697
  51. Nesbitt, H.W. & Young, G.M. (1982) Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature, 299 (5885), 715–717. https://doi.org/10.1038/299715a0
  52. Nsingi, J.M., Cui, Y., Cepin, E., Beaty, B., Planavsky, N., Wu, Q., Adloff, M., Wang, J., Selby, D., Liu, Z., Dong, Y., Jiang, S. & Zhu, F. (2025) Changes in continental weathering across the Permian‑Triassic transition: A global review. Global and Planetary Change, 254, 105015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2025.105015
  53. Palmer, M.R. & Edmond, J.M. (1989) The Strontium Isotope Budget of the Modern Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 92 (1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(89)90017-4
  54. Pearce, C.R., Parkinson, I.J., Gaillardet, J., Charlier, B.L.A., Mokadem, F. & Burton, K.W. (2015) Reassessing the stable (δ⁸⁸/86Sr) and radiogenic (87Sr/86Sr) strontium isotopic composition of marine inputs. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 157, 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2015.02.029
  55. Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B. & Fiske, G.J. (2019) A continental perspective of the seawater 87Sr/86Sr record: A review. Chemical Geology, 510, 140–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.01.017
  56. Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B. & Ravizza, G. (2000) The marine osmium isotope record. Terra Nova, 12 (5), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3121.2000.00295.x
  57. Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Burton, K.W., James, R.H., van Calsteren, P., Gislason, S.R. & Sigfússon, B. (2008) The influence of weathering processes on riverine magnesium isotopes in a basaltic terrain. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 276 (1-2), 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.09.020
  58. Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Jenkyns, H.C. & Woodfine, R.G. (2013) Lithium isotope evidence for enhanced weathering during Oceanic Anoxic Event 2. Nature Geoscience, 6, 668–672. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1875
  59. Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Schmidt, D.N., Planavsky, N.J., Wei, G., Jones, C.L. & Baumann, K.H. (2019) Assessing bulk carbonates as archives for seawater Li isotope ratios. Chemical Geology, 530, 119338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.119338
  60. Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Dellinger, M. & West, A.J. (2021) Lithium isotopes: a tracer of past and present silicate weathering. Geochemical Tracers in Earth System Science. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108990752
  61. Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Liu, X.Y., Liu, C.Y., Wilson, D.J., Hammond, S.J., Tarbuck, G., Aristilde, L., Krause, A.J. & Fraser, W.T. (2022) Lithium isotope behaviour during basalt weathering experiments amended with organic acids. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 328, 37–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2022.04.032
  62. Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Cosford, L.R., Liu, C.Y., Liu, X.Y., Krause, A.J., Wilson, D.J., He, X.Q., McCoy‑West, A.J., Gislason, S.R. & Burton, K.W. (2023) Assessing hydrological controls on the lithium isotope weathering tracer. Chemical Geology, 642, 121801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121801
  63. Qie, W.K., Zhang, J.P., Luo, G.M., Algeo, T.J., Chen, B., Xiang, L., Liang, K., Liu, X.Y., Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Chen, J.T. & Wang, X.D. (2023) Enhanced Continental Weathering as a Trigger for the End-Devonian Hangenberg Crisis. Geophysical Research Letters, 50 (11), e2022GL102640. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL102640
  64. Rauzi, S., Foster, W.J., Takahashi, S., Hori, R.S., Beaty, B.J., Tarhan, L.G. & Isson, T. (2024) Lithium isotopic evidence for enhanced reverse weathering during the Early Triassic warm period. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 121 (32), e2318860121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2318860121
  65. Rooney, A.D., Selby, D., Lloyd, J.M., Roberts, D.H., Lückge, A., Sageman, B.B. & Prouty, N.G. (2016) Tracking millennial‑scale Holocene glacial advance and retreat using osmium isotopes: Insights from the Greenland ice sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews, 138, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.02.021
  66. Schneebeli-Hermann, E., Kurschner, W.M., Hochuli, P.A., Ware, D., Weissert, H., Bernasconi, S.M., Roohi, G., ur‑Rehman, K., Goudemand, N. & Bucher, H. (2013) Evidence for atmospheric carbon injection during the end‑Permian extinction. Geology, 41 (5), 579–582. https://doi.org/10.1130/G34047.1
  67. Schoepfer, S.D., Henderson, C.M., Garrison, G.H., Foriel, J., Ward, P.D., Selby, D., Hower, J.C., Algeo, T.J. & Shen, Y.N. (2013) Termination of a continent‑margin upwelling system at the Permian‑Triassic boundary (Opal Creek, Alberta, Canada). Global and Planetary Change, 105, 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.07.005
  68. Sedlacek, A.R.C., Saltzman, M.R., Algeo, T.J., Horacek, M., Brandner, R., Foland, K. & Denniston, R.F. (2014) 87Sr/86Sr stratigraphy from the Early Triassic of Zal, Iran: Linking temperature to weathering rates and the tempo of ecosystem recovery. Geology, 42 (9), 779–782. https://doi.org/10.1130/G35545.1
  69. Song, H.J., Wignall, P.B., Tong, J.N., Song, H.Y., Chen, J., Chu, D.L., Tian, L., Luo, M., Zong, K.Q., Chen, Y.L., Lai, X.L., Zhang, K.X. & Wang, H.M. (2015) Integrated Sr isotope variations and global environmental changes through the Late Permian to early Late Triassic. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 424, 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.05.035
  70. Spalletti, L.A. & Limarino, C.O. (2017) The Choiyoi magmatism in south western Gondwana: implications for the end‑permian mass extinction—a review. Andean Geology, 44 (3), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.5027/andgeoV44n3-a05
  71. Sun, H., Xiao, Y., Gao, Y., Zhang, G., Casey, J.F. & Shen, Y. (2018) Rapid enhancement of chemical weathering recorded by extremely light seawater lithium isotopes at the Permian‑Triassic boundary. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115 (15), 3782–3787. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711862115
  72. Sun, Y.D., Joachimski, M.M., Wignall, P.B., Yan, C.B., Chen, Y.L., Jiang, H.S., Wang, L.N. & Lai, X.L. (2012) Lethally Hot Temperatures During the Early Triassic Greenhouse. Science, 338 (6105), 366–370. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1224126
  73. Svensen, H., Planke, S., Polozov, A.G., Schmidbauer, N., Corfu, F., Podladchikov, Y.Y. & Jamtveit, B. (2009) Siberian gas venting and the end‑Permian environmental crisis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 277 (3-4), 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.11.015
  74. Taylor, K., Rauzi, S., Isson, T., Ibarra, D.E., Hülse, D., Kimmig, S.R., Payne, J.L., Altiner, D., Lehrmann, D.J., Kalderon‑Asael, B., Planavsky, N.J. & Lau, K.V. (2026) Heterogeneous Carbonate Lithium Isotope Records Across the end‑Permian Mass Extinction Indicate a Highly Perturbed Lithium Cycle in the Early Triassic. American Journal of Science, 326, Article 5. https://doi.org/10.2475/001c.156171
  75. Tipper, E.T., Galy, A. & Bickle, M.J. (2006) Riverine evidence for a fractionated reservoir of Ca and Mg on the continents: Implications for the oceanic Ca cycle. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 247 (3-4), 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.04.033
  76. Tomascak, P.B. (2004) Developments in the understanding and application of lithium isotopes in the earth and planetary sciences. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 55 (1), 153–195. https://doi.org/10.2138/gsrmg.55.1.153
  77. Veevers, J.J. & Tewari, R.C. (1995) Permian‑Carboniferous and Permian‑Triassic magmatism in the rift‑zone bordering the Tethyan margin of southern Pangea. Geology, 23 (5), 467–470. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0467:PCAPTM>2.3.CO;2
  78. Veizer, J., Ala, D., Azmy, K., Bruckschen, P., Buhl, D., Bruhn, F., Carden, G.A.F., Diener, A., Ebneth, S., Godderis, Y., Jasper, T., Korte, C., Pawellek, F., Podlaha, O.G. & Strauss, H. (1999) 87Sr/86Sr, δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O evolution of Phanerozoic seawater. Chemical Geology, 161 (1-3), 59–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00081-9
  79. Vigier, N., Decarreau, A., Millot, R., Carignan, J., Petit, S. & France-Lanord, C. (2008) Quantifying Li isotope fractionation during smectite formation and implications for the Li cycle. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 72 (3), 780–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2007.11.011
  80. Viglietti, P.A., Benson, R.B.J., Smith, R.M.H., Botha, J., Kammerer, C.F., Skosan, Z., Butler, E., Crean, A., Eloff, B., Kaal, S., Mohoi, J., Molehe, W., Mtalana, N., Mtungata, S., Ntheri, N., Ntsala, T., Nyaphuli, J., October, P., Skinner, G., Strong, M., Stummer, H., Wolvaardt, F.P. & Angielczyk, K.D. (2021) Evidence from South Africa for a protracted end‑Permian extinction on land. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118 (17), e2017045118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2017045118
  81. Walker, J.C.G., Hays, P.B. & Kasting, J.F. (1981) A negative feedback mechanism for the long‑term stabilization of Earth’s surface temperature. Journal of Geophysical Research, 86 (C10), 9776–9782. https://doi.org/10.1029/JC086iC10p09776
  82. Wang, J.Y., Jacobson, A.D., Zhang, H., Ramezani, J., Sageman, B.B., Hurtgen, M.T., Bowring, S.A. & Shen, S.Z. (2019) Coupled δ44/40Ca, δ88/86Sr, and 87Sr/86Sr geochemistry across the end‑Permian mass extinction event. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 262, 143–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2019.07.035
  83. Wang, W.Q., Katchinoff, J.A.R., Garbelli, C., Immenhauser, A., Zheng, Q.F., Zhang, Y.C., Yuan, D.X., Shi, Y.K., Wang, J.Y., Planavsky, N. & Shen, S.Z. (2021) Revisiting the Permian seawater 87Sr/86Sr record: New perspectives from brachiopod proxy data and stochastic oceanic box models. Earth‑Science Reviews, 218, 103679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103679
  84. Wang, W.Q., Zhang, F.F., Liu, C.Y., Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Xiong, G.L., Zheng, Q.F., Garbelli, C., Zhang, Y.C., Yuan, D.X. & Shen, S.Z. (2024) Constraints on the continental weathering intensity through the Permian using lithium isotopes of well‑preserved brachiopod shells. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 648, 119101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.119101
  85. Washington, K.E., West, A.J., Kalderon‑Asael, B., Katchinoff, J.A.R., Stevenson, E.I. & Planavsky, N.J. (2020) Lithium isotope composition of modern and fossilized Cenozoic brachiopods. Geology, 48 (11), 1058–1061. https://doi.org/10.1130/G47558.1
  86. Wei, G.Y., Wei, W., Wang, D., Li, T., Yang, X., Shields, G.A., Zhang, F., Li, G., Chen, T., Yang, T. & Ling, H.F. (2020) Enhanced chemical weathering triggered an expansion of euxinic seawater in the aftermath of the Sturtian glaciation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 539, 116244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116244
  87. Wei, G.Y., Zhao, M.Y., Sperling, E.A., Gaines, R.R., Kalderon‑Asael, B., Shen, J., Li, C., Zhang, F.F., Li, G.J., Zhou, C.M., Cai, C.F., Chen, D.Z., Xiao, K.Q., Jiang, L., Ling, H.F., Planavsky, N.J. & Tarhan, L.G. (2024) Lithium isotopic constraints on the evolution of continental clay mineral factory and marine oxygenation in the earliest Paleozoic Era. Science Advances, 10 (13), eadk2152. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adk2152
  88. Wimpenny, J., Colla, C.A., Yin, Q.Z., Rustad, J.R. & Casey, W.H. (2014) Investigating the behaviour of Mg isotopes during the formation of clay minerals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 128, 178–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2013.12.012
  89. Wimpenny, J., Gíslason, S.R., James, R.H., Gannoun, A., Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E. & Burton, K.W. (2010) The behaviour of Li and Mg isotopes during primary phase dissolution and secondary mineral formation in basalt. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 74 (18), 5259–5279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.06.028
  90. Wu, Q., Ramezani, J., Zhang, H., Wang, J., Zeng, F., Zhang, Y., Liu, F., Chen, J., Cai, Y., Hou, Z., Liu, C., Yang, W., Henderson, C.M. & Shen, S.Z. (2021) High‑precision U‑Pb age constraints on the Permian floral turnovers, paleoclimate change, and tectonics of the North China block. Geology, 49 (6), 677–681. https://doi.org/10.1130/G48051.1
  91. Xu, G.Z., Shen, J., Algeo, T.J., Yu, J.X., Feng, Q.L., Frank, T.D., Fielding, C.R., Yan, J.X., Deconink, J.F. & Lei, Y. (2023) Limited change in silicate chemical weathering intensity during the Permian‑Triassic transition indicates ineffective climate regulation by weathering feedbacks. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 616, 118235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118235
  92. Ye, R.H., Zhang, F.F., Wei, G.Y., Chen, J.B., Feng, Z. & Shen, S.Z. (2024) Lithium isotopes track changes in continental weathering regimes across the end‑Permian mass extinction in Southwest China. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 647, 119045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2024.119045
  93. Zhang, H.R., Yang, T.N., Hou, Z.Q., Song, Y.C., Ding, Y. & Cheng, X.F. (2013) Petrogenesis and tectonics of late Permian felsic volcanic rocks, eastern Qiangtang block, north‑central Tibet: Sr and Nd isotopic evidence. International Geology Review, 55 (8), 1017–1028. https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2012.759669
  94. Zhang, H., Zhang, F.F., Chen, J.B., Erwin, D.H., Syverson, D.D., Ni, P., Rampino, M., Chi, Z., Cai, Y.F., Xiang, L., Li, W.Q., Liu, S.A., Wang, R.C., Wang, X.D., Feng, Z., Li, H.M., Zhang, T., Cai, H.M., Zheng, W., Cui, Y., Zhu, X.K., Hou, Z.Q., Wu, F.Y., Xu, Y.G., Planavsky, N. & Shen, S.Z. (2021) Felsic volcanism as a factor driving the end‑Permian mass extinction. Science Advances, 7 (47), eabh1390. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abh1390
  95. Zhang, P.X., Yang, M.F, Lu, J., Bond, D.P., Zhou, K., Xu, X.T., Wang, Y., He, Z., Bian, X., Shao, L.Y. & Hilton, J. (2023) End-Permian terrestrial ecosystem collapse in North China: evidence from palynology and geochemistry. Global and Planetary Change, 222, 104070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104070
  96. Zhao, H., Zhang, L., Algeo, T.J., Lyu, Z., Wang, X. & Hao, F. (2025) Volcanism and basalt weathering drove Ordovician climatic cooling. Nature Communications, 16, 11475. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-66316-4
  97. Zhou, J.L., Zhang, F.F., Lin, Y.B., Ren, G.Y., Wei, G.Y., Yang, A.H. & Shen, S.Z. (2025) Paired lithium and barium isotopes uncover weathering and productivity controls on the late cambrian SPICE event. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 410, 188–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2025.10.011