Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the Trichoptera fauna of freshwater springs in Iceland and to relate distribution of caddis larvae to environmental properties of the springs. Out of a total of 48 springs sampled, Trichoptera larvae were found in only eleven. Larval densities were low, as was species diversity. Only three of the 12 species known to occur in Iceland were found: Apatania zonella, Limnephilus griseus, and Limnephilus affinis. The occurrence of A. zonella in springs in North-Iceland may suggest that springs might play a role as refugia for this species that is otherwise excluded from the area by larvae of the predatory caddis species Potamophylax cingulatus, which seems to be absent from spring habitats. Caddis larval abundance was higher in rheocrene springs and in springs with sandy substrate, and decreased with increasing water temperature. Presence or absence of Trichoptera larvae, on the other hand, was not associated with any of the environmental variables measured.
References
Cianficconi, F., Corallini, C. & Moretti, G.P. (1998) Trichoptera fauna of the Italian springs. In: Botosaneanu, L. (Ed.), Studies in crenobiology. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 125–140.
Curtis, J. (1834) Description of some hitherto nondescript British species of mayflies of anglers. The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 3 (4), 120–125, 212–218.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14786443408648304
Erman, N.A. & Erman, D.C. (1995) Spring permanence, Trichoptera species richness, and the role of drought. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 68, 50–64.
von Fumetti, S., Nagel, P., Scheifhacken, N. & Baltes, B. (2006) Factors governing macrozoobenthic assemblages in perennial springs in north-western Switzerland. Hydrobiologia, 568, 467–475.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0227-8
Gíslason, G.M. (1978) Life cycle of Limnephilus affinis Curt. (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae) in Iceland and in Northumberland, England. Verhandlungen der Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie, 20, 2622–2629.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03680770.1977.11896929
Gíslason, G.M. (1979) Identification of Icelandic caddis larvae, with descriptions of Limnephilus fenestratus (Zett.) and L. picturatus McL. (Trichoptera. Limnephilidae, Phryganeidae). Entomologica Scandinavica, 10, 161–176.
https://doi.org/10.1163/187631279794814940
Gíslason, G.M. (1981a) Distribution and habitat preferences of Icelandic Trichoptera. In: Moretti, G.P. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Trichoptera, Series Entomologica, 20. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 99–109.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-8641-1_14
Gíslason, G.M. (1981b) Predatory exclusion of Apatania zonella (Zett.) by Potamophylax cingulatus (Steph.) (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae) in Iceland. In: Moretti, G.P. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Trichoptera, Series Entomologica, 20. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 93–98.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-8641-1_13
Gíslason, G.M. (2005) Origin of freshwater fauna of the North-Atlantic islands: Present distribution in relation to climate and possible migration routes. Verhandlungen des Internationalen Verein Limnologie, 29, 198–203.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03680770.2005.11901995
Gíslason, G.M. & Sigfússon, A. (1987) The life cycle and food of Apatania zonella (Zett.) in a spring-fed stream in SW-Iceland (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae). In: Bournaud, M. & Tachet, H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Trichoptera. Dr. W. Junk Pub., The Haag, pp. 237–242.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4043-7_43
Gíslason, G.M., Halbach, U. & Flechtner, G. (1990) Habitat and life histories of Trichoptera in Thjorsarver, Central Highlands of Iceland. Fauna norvegica Series B, 37, 83–90.
Gíslason, G.M., Hannesdóttir, E.R., Munoz, S.S. & Pálsson, S. (2015) Origin and dispersal of Potamophylax cingulatus (Trichoptera:Limnephilidae) in Iceland. Freshwater Biology, 60, 387–394.
https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.12501
Govoni, D.P., Kristjánsson, B.K. & Ólafsson, J.S. (2018) Spring type influences invertebrate communities at cold spring sources. Hydrobiologia, 808, 315–325.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-017-3434-6
Hanna, H.M. (1961) Selection of materials for case-building by larvae of caddis flies (Trichoptera). Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London, Series A, 36, 37–47.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1961.tb00257.x
Hrafnsdottir, Th. (2005) Diptera 2 (Chironomidae), The Zoology of Iceland III, 48b, 1–169.
Ilmonen, J. & Paasivirta, L. (2005) Benthic macrocrustacean and insect assemblages in relation to spring habitat characteristics: Patterns in abundance and diversity. Hydrobiologia, 533, 99–113.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-004-2399-4
Kreiling, A.-K., Ólafsson, J.S., Pálsson, S. & Kristjánsson, B.K. (2018) Chironomidae fauna of springs in Iceland: Assessing the ecological relevance behind Tuxen’s spring classification. Journal of Limnology, 77, 25–34.
https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2018.1754
Lillehammer, A., Jóhannsson, M. & Gíslason, G.M. (1986) Studies on Capnia vidua Klapálek (Capniidae, Plecoptera) populations in Iceland. Fauna norvegica, Series B, 33, 93–97.
Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per Regna tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. 10th Edition, Volume 1: Regnum Animalia. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae [Stockholm].
https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.542
Maiolini, B., Carolli, M. & Silveri, L. (2011) Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera in springs in Trentino (south-eastern Alps). Journal of Limnology, 70, 122–133.
https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2011.s1.122
Myers, M.J. & Resh, V.H. (2002) Trichoptera and other macroinvertebrates in springs of the Great Basin: Species composition, richness, and distribution. Western North American Naturalist, 62, 1–13.
Ólafsson, E. & Gíslason, G.M. (2010) Micropterna lateralis (Stephens, 1837) (Trichoptera, Limnephilidae) recorded in Iceland. Norwegian Journal of Entomology, 57, 17–19.
Óskarsdóttir, A.V. (Ed.) (2011) Náttúruvernd. Hvítbók um löggjöf til verndar náttúru Íslands. The Ministry of the Environment, Reykjavik. [in Icelandic: Nature Conservation. White book on legislation to conserve the nature of Iceland]
R Core Team (2016) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available from: https://www.R-project.org/ (accessed 27 August 2019)
Stephens, J.F. (1836–1837) Illustrations of British Entomology; or a Synopsis of Indigenous Insects: Containing their Generic and Specific Distinctions; with an Account of their Metamorphoses, Times of Appearance, Localities, Food, and Economy, as far as Practicable. Mandibulata. Vol. VI. Baldwin and Cradock, London.
Tuxen, S.L. (1938) Plecoptera and Ephemeroptera. Zoology of Iceland, 3, 1–4.
Zetterstedt, J.W. (1840) Fauna Insectorum Lapponica. Vol. 5. Leipzig, Voss, 592 pp.