Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer
Responsive image
Issue: Vol. 4 No. 5: September 2021
Type: Article
Published: 2021-09-24
DOI: 10.11646/palaeoentomology.4.5.14
Page range: 475–498
Abstract views: 661
PDF downloaded: 396

Long-headed predators in Cretaceous amber—fossil findings of an unusual type of lacewing larva

Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Biocenter, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, Cytology and Evolutionary Biology, Soldmannstr. 23, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Biocenter, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
Kreuzbergstr. 90, 66482 Zweibrücken, Germany
Forsteler Str. 1, 64739 Höchst im Odenwald, Germany
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Biocenter, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany, GeoBio-Center at LMU, Richard-Wagner-Str. 10, 80333 München, Germany
University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, Cytology and Evolutionary Biology, Soldmannstr. 23, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Biocenter, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany, GeoBio-Center at LMU, Richard-Wagner-Str. 10, 80333 München, Germany
Neuroptera Myrmeleontiformia Myanmar amber Macleodiella electrina Elliptic Fourier Analysis Principal Component Analysis

Abstract

Lacewing larvae (Neuroptera) are known to be fierce predators which are morphologically highly specialised for a raptorial lifestyle. Mandibular-maxillary stylets are characteristic for all larvae of this group; these stylets can be extraordinarily massive. Despite these distinct sucking-piercing stylets, also other extreme features occur in some ingroups, such as an extremely elongated neck. In larvae of thread-winged lacewings (Crocinae) the neck can reach up to about one third of the body length; they are also called ‘long-necked antlions’. Even though the larvae of living neuropteran species show a variety of conspicuous morphologies today, indeed 100 million years ago, in the Cretaceous, Neuroptera seems to have had an even more “experimental phase”. Several larval specimens are known so far especially in Myanmar, Spanish and Lebanese amber from the Cretaceous with unique and unusual character combinations not found in any group living today. We describe here ten new fossil findings of one of these types of larvae with elongated head capsule in Myanmar amber, previously only known from a single specimen. We compared the head shapes of the new specimens with those of 190 specimens of other lacewing larvae and discuss further implications of our findings, especially making functional comparisons with long-necked antlions.

References

  1. Aspöck, H. & Aspöck, U. (2014) Another neuropterological field trip to Morocco. Lacewing News, 19, 6–7.
  2. Aspöck, U. & Aspöck, H. (1999) Kamelhälse, Schlammfliegen, Ameisenlöwen... Wer sind sie? (Insecta: Neuropterida: Raphidioptera, Megaloptera, Neuroptera). Stapfia, 60/Kataloge des Oberösterreichischen Landesmuseum, Neue Folge, 138, 1–34.
  3. Aspöck, U. & Aspöck, H. (2007) Verbliebene Vielfalt vergangener Blüte. Zur Evolution, Phylogenie und Biodiversität der Neuropterida:(Insecta: Endopterygota). Denisia, 20, Kataloge des Oberösterreichischen Landesmuseum, Neue Serie, 66, 451–516.
  4. Aspöck, U., Plant, J.D. & Nemeschkal, H.L. (2001) Cladistic analysis of Neuroptera and their systematic position within Neuropterida (Insecta: Holometabola: Neuropterida: Neuroptera). Systematic Entomology, 26 (1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.2001.00136.x
  5. Aspöck, U., Haring, E. & Aspöck, H. (2012) The phylogeny of the Neuropterida: long lasting and current controversies and challenges (Insecta: Endopterygota). Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny, 70 (2), 119–129.
  6. Badano, D., Aspöck, U., Aspöck, H. & Cerretti, P. (2017) Phylogeny of Myrmeleontiformia based on larval morphology (Neuropterida: Neuroptera). Systematic Entomology, 42 (1), 94–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12200
  7. Badano, D., Engel, M.S., Basso, A., Wang, B. & Cerretti, P. (2018) Diverse Cretaceous larvae reveal the evolutionary and behavioural history of antlions and lacewings. Nature Communications, 9 (1), 3257. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05484-y
  8. Badano, D., Fratini, M., Maugeri, L., Palermo, F., Pieroni, N., Cedola, A., Haug, J.T., Weiterschan, T., Velten, J., Mei, M., Di Giulio, A. & Cerretti, P. (2021) X-ray microtomography and phylogenomics provide insights into the morphology and evolution of an enigmatic Mesozoic insect larva. Systematic Entomology, 46, 672–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12482
  9. Beutel, R.G., Friedrich, F. & Aspöck, U. (2010) The larval head of Nevrorthidae and the phylogeny of Neuroptera (Insecta). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 158 (3), 533–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00560.x
  10. Braig, F., Haug, J.T., Schädel, M. & Haug, C. (2019) A new thylacocephalan crustacean from the Upper Jurassic lithographic limestones of southern Germany and the diversity of Thylacocephala. Palaeodiversity, 12 (1), 69–87. https://doi.org/10.18476/pale.v12.a6
  11. Eltringham, H. (with additional notes of Willmer, E.N. & Williams, C.B.) (1923) On the larva of Pterocroce storeyi, With. (Nemopteridae). Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, 1923, 263–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1923.tb03336.x
  12. Engel, M.S. & Grimaldi, D.A. (2008) Diverse Neuropterida in Cretaceous amber, with particular reference to the paleofauna of Myanmar (Insecta). Nova Supplementa Entomologica, 20, 1–86.
  13. Froggatt, W.W. (1907) Australian Insects. William Brooks and Company, Ltd., Sydney, xiv+449 pp.
  14. Gepp, J. (1984) Erforschungsstand der Neuropteren-Larven der Erde (mit einem Schlüssel zur Larvaldiagnose der Familien, einer Übersicht von 340 beschriebenen Larven und 600 Literaturzitaten). In: Gepp, J., Aspöck, H. & Hölzel, H. (Eds), Progress in World’s Neuropterology. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Neuropterology. Privately printed, Graz, Austria, pp. 183–239.
  15. Ghosh, C.C. (1910) Entomological notes. Croce filipennis. Westw. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 20, 530–532.
  16. Gröhn, C. (2015) Einschlüsse im baltischen Bernstein. Wachholtz Murmann Publishers, Kiel, 424 pp.
  17. Haug, C., Ahyong, S.T., Wiethase, J.H., Olesen, J. & Haug, J.T. (2016) Extreme morphologies of mantis shrimp larvae. Nauplius, 24, e2016020. https://doi.org/10.1590/2358-2936e2016020
  18. Haug, C., Herrera-Flórez, A.F., Müller, P. & Haug, J.T. (2019) Cretaceous chimera—an unusual 100-million-year old neuropteran larva from the “experimental phase” of insect evolution. Palaeodiversity, 12 (1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.18476/pale.v12.a1
  19. Haug, C., Reumer, J.W.F., Haug, J.T., Arillo, A., Audo, D., Azar, D., Baranov, V., Beutel, R., Charbonnier, S., Feldmann, R., Foth, C., Fraaije, R.H.B., Frenzel, P., Gašparič, R., Greenwalt, D.E., Harms, D., Hyžny, M., Jagt, J.W.M., Jagt-Yazykova, E.A., Jarzembowski, E., Kerp, H., Kirejtshuk, A.G., Klug, C., Kopylov, D.S., Kotthoff, U., Kriwet, J., Kunzmann, L., McKellar, R.C., Nel, A., Neumann, C., Nützel, A., Perrichot, V., Pint, A., Rauhut, O., Schneider, J.W., Schram, F.R., Schweigert, G., Selden, P., Szwedo, J., van Bakel, B.W.M., van Eldijk, T., Vega, F.J., Wang, B., Wang, Y., Xing, L. & Reich, M. (2020) Comment on the letter of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP) dated April 21, 2020 regarding “Fossils from conflict zones and reproducibility of fossil-based scientific data”: the importance of private collections. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 94 (3), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-020-00522-x
  20. Haug, G.T., Haug, C., Pazinato, P.G., Braig, F., Perrichot, V., Gröhn, C., Müller, P. & Haug, J.T. (2020) The decline of silky lacewings and morphological diversity of long-nosed antlion larvae through time. Palaeontologia Electronica, 23 (2), a39. https://doi.org/10.26879/1029
  21. Haug, G.T., Haug, C., van der Wal, S., Müller, P. & Haug, J.T. (online first) Split-footed lacewings declined over time: indications from the morphological diversity of their antlion-like larvae. Paläontologische Zeitschrift. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-021-00550-1
  22. Haug, G.T., Baranov, V., Wizen, G., Pazinato, P.G., Müller, P., Haug, C. & Haug, J.T. (2021a) The morphological diversity of long-necked lacewing larvae (Neuroptera: Myrmeleontiformia). Bulletin of Geosciences, 96 (4) 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3140/bull.geosci.1807
  23. Haug, G.T., Haug, C. & Haug, J.T. (2021b) The morphological diversity of spoon-winged lacewing larvae and the first possible fossils from 99 million-year-old Kachin amber, Myanmar. Palaeodiversity, 14, 133–152. https://doi.org/10.18476/pale.v14.a6
  24. Haug, J.T., Müller, C.H.G. & Sombke, A. (2013) A centipede nymph in Baltic amber and a new approach to document amber fossils. Organisms Diversity & Evolution, 13, 425–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13127-013-0129-3
  25. Haug, J.T., Müller, P. & Haug, C. (2019a) A 100-million-year old predator: a fossil neuropteran larva with unusually elongated mouthparts. Zoological Letters, 5 (1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40851-019-0144-0
  26. Haug, J.T., Müller, P. & Haug, C. (2019b) A 100-million-year old slim insectan predator with massive venom-injecting stylets—a new type of neuropteran larva from Burmese amber. Bulletin of Geosciences, 94 (4), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.3140/bull.geosci.1753
  27. Haug, J.T., Azar, D., Ross, A., Szwedo, J., Wang, B., Arillo, A., Baranov, V., Bechteler, J., Beutel, R., Blagoderov, V., Delclòs, X., Dunlop, J., Feldberg, K., Feldmann, R., Foth, C., Fraaije, R.H.B., Gehler, A., Harms, D., Hedenäs, L., Hyžny, M., Jagt, J.W.M., Jagt-Yazykova, E.A., Jarzembowski, E., Kerp, H., Khine, P.K., Kirejtshuk, A.G., Klug, C., Kopylov, D.S., Kotthoff, U., Kriwet, J., McKellar, R.C., Nel, A., Neumann, C., Nützel, A., Peñalver, E., Perrichot, V., Pint, A., Ragazzi, E., Regalado, L., Reich, M., Rikkinen, J., Sadowski, E.-M., Schmidt, A.R., Schneider, H., Schram, F.R., Schweigert, G., Selden, P., Seyfullah, L.J., Solórzano-Kraemer, M.M., Stilwell, J.D., van Bakel, B.W.M., Vega, F.J., Wang, Y., Xing, L. & Haug, C. (2020c) Comment on the letter of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP) dated April 21, 2020 regarding “Fossils from conflict zones and reproducibility of fossil-based scientific data”: Myanmar amber. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 94 (3), 431–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-020-00524-9
  28. Haug, J.T., Baranov, V., Schädel, M., Müller, P., Gröhn, P. & Haug, C. (2020a) Challenges for understanding lacewings: how to deal with the incomplete data from extant and fossil larvae of Nevrorthidae? (Neuroptera). Fragmenta entomologica, 52 (2), 137–168. https://doi.org/10.13133/2284-4880/472
  29. Haug, J.T., Pazinato, P.G., Haug, G.T. & Haug, C. (2020b) Yet another unusual new type of lacewing larva preserved in 100-million-year old amber from Myanmar. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia (Research in Paleontology and Stratigraphy), 126 (3), 821–832. https://doi.org/10.13130/2039-4942/14439
  30. Herrera-Flórez, A.F., Haug, C., Burmeister, E.G. & Haug, J.T. (2020a) A neuropteran insect with the relatively longest prothorax: the “giraffe” among insects is the larva of a Necrophylus species from Libya. Spixiana, 43 (2), 305–314.
  31. Herrera-Flórez, A.F., Braig, F., Haug, C., Neumann, C., Wunderlich, J., Hörnig, M.K. & Haug, J.T. (2020b) Identifying the oldest larva of a myrmeleontiformian lacewing – a morphometric approach. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 65 (2), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.00662.2019
  32. Hölzel, H. (1999) Die Nemopteriden (Fadenhafte) Arabiens. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Neuropterida der Arabischen Halbinsel (Neuropterida: Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). In: Aspöck, H. (Ed.), Neuropterida: Raphidioptera, Megaloptera, Neuroptera, Kamelhälse, Schlammfliegen, Ameisenlöwen. Stapfia, 60, Kataloge des Oberösterreichischen Landesmuseum, Neue Folge, 138, 129–146.
  33. Hörnig, M.K., Kiesmüller, C., Müller, P., Haug, C. & Haug, J.T. (2020) A new glimpse on trophic interactions of 100-million-year old lacewing larvae. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 65 (4), 777–786. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.00677.2019
  34. Imms, A.D. (1911) X. Contributions to a Knowledge of the Structure and Biology of some Indian Insects.— I. On the Life-history of Croce filipennis, Westw. (Order Neuroptera, Fam. Hemerobiidæ). The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 2nd Series. Zoology, 11 (10), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1911.tb00190.x
  35. Imms, A.D. (1923) A general textbook of entomology. 1st Edition, Methuen & Co., London, 727 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-6514-3
  36. Iwata, H. & Ukai, Y. (2002) SHAPE: A computer program package for quantitative evaluation of biological shapes based on elliptic Fourier descriptors. Journal of Heredity, 93 (5), 384–385. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/93.5.384
  37. Jandausch, K., Pohl, H., Aspöck, U., Winterton, S.L. & Beutel, R.G. (2018) Morphology of the primary larva of Mantispa aphavexelte Aspöck & Aspöck, 1994 (Neuroptera: Mantispidae) and phylogenetic implications to the order of Neuroptera. Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny, 76 (3), 529–560.
  38. Jandausch, K., Beutel, R.G. & Bellstedt, R. (2019) The larval morphology of the spongefly Sisyra nigra (Retzius, 1783) (Neuroptera: Sisyridae). Journal of Morphology, 280 (12), 1742–1758. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.21060
  39. Liu, X., Zhang, W., Winterton, S.L., Breitkreuz, L.C. & Engel, M.S. (2016) Early morphological specialization for insect-spider associations in Mesozoic lacewings. Current Biology, 26 (12), 1590–1594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.039
  40. Liu, X., Shi, G., Xia, F., Lu, X., Wang, B. & Engel, M.S. (2018) Liverwort mimesis in a Cretaceous lacewing larva. Current Biology, 28 (9), 1475–1481.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.03.060
  41. Machado, R.J.P., Gillung, J.P., Winterton, S.L., Garzón-Orduña, I.J., Lemmon, A.R., Lemmon, E.M. & Oswald, J.D. (2019) Owlflies are derived antlions: anchored phylogenomics supports a new phylogeny and classification of Myrmeleontidae (Neuroptera). Systematic Entomology, 44 (2), 418–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12334
  42. MacLeod, E.G. (1964) A comparative morphological study of the head capsule and cervix of larval Neuroptera (Insecta). Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, iii + 528 pp.
  43. MacLeod, E.G. (1970) The Neuroptera of the Baltic amber. I. Ascalaphidae, Nymphidae, and Psychopsidae. Psyche, 77 (2), 147–180. https://doi.org/10.1155/1970/45459
  44. Makarkin, V.N. (2018) Re-description of Grammapsychops lebedevi Martynova, 1954 (Neuroptera: Psychopsidae) with notes on the Late Cretaceous psychopsoids. Zootaxa, 4524 (5), 581–594. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4524.5.5
  45. Mansell, M.W. (1973) The first record of a larval nemopterid from southern Africa (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae: Nemopterinae). Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 36 (1), 133–137.
  46. Mansell, M.W. (1976) The larva of Laurhervasia setacea (Klug) (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae: Crocinae) from southern Africa. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 39 (2), 153–158.
  47. Mansell, M.W. (1977) A new genus and species in the Crocinae (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae) from southern Africa. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 40 (2), 195–203.
  48. Mansell, M.W. (1980) The Crocinae of southern Africa (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). 1. The genera Laurhervasia Navas and Thysanocroce Withycombe. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 43 (2), 341–365.
  49. Mansell, M.W. (1981a) The Crocinae of southern Africa (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). 2. The genus Tjederia Mansell. With keys to southern African Crocinae. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 44 (1), 245–257.
  50. Mansell, M.W. (1981b) The Crocinae of southern Africa (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). 3. The genus Concroce Tjeder. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 44 (2), 91–106.
  51. Mansell, M.W. (1983a) A revision of the Australian Crocinae (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). Australian Journal of Zoology, 31 (4), 607–627. https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO9830607
  52. Mansell, M.W. (1983b) New Crocinae (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae) from South America, with descriptions of larvae. Journal of Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 46 (1), 115–130. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/AJA00128789_2356
  53. Mansell, M.W. (1996) Predation strategies and evolution in antlions (Insecta: Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae). In: Canard, M., Aspöck, H. & Mansell, M.W. (Eds), Pure and Applied Research in Neuropterology. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Neuropterology. Privately printed, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 161–168.
  54. Mathews, W.H. (1947) Some notes on the spoon-winged lacewings (Chasmoptera hutti). Western Australian Naturalist, 1, 42–44.
  55. Miller, R.B. & Stange, L.A. (1989) A new species of Moranida Mansell from Venezuela (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). Insecta Mundi, 3 (1), 65–70.
  56. Miller, R.B. & Stange, L.A. (2012) A new species of Stenorrhachus McLachlan from Chile (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae) with biological notes. Insecta Mundi, 0226, 1–8.
  57. Monserrat, V.J. (1983a) Pterocroce capillaris (Klug, 1836) en Europa (Neur., Plan., Nemopteridae). Neuroptera International, 2 (3), 109–128.
  58. Montserrat, V.J. (1983b) Estadios larvarios de los neurópteros ibéricos I: Josandreva sazi (Neur. Plan., Nemopteridae). Speleon, 26–27, 39–51.
  59. Monserrat, V.J. (1996) Larval stages of European Nemopterinae, with systematic considerations on the family Nemopteridae (Insecta, Neuroptera). Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 43 (1), 99–121. https://doi.org/10.1002/mmnd.19960430111
  60. Monserrat, V.J. (2008) Nuevos datos sobre algunas especies de Nemopteridae y Crocidae (Insecta: Neuroptera). Heteropterus, Revista de Entomología, 8 (1), 1–33.
  61. Navás, L. (1919) Once neurópteros nuevos españoles. Boletín de la Sociedad Entomológica Española, 2 (1), 48–56.
  62. New, T.R. (1982) The larva of Nymphes Leach (Neuroptera: Nymphidae). Neuroptera International, 2 (2), 79–84.
  63. New, T.R. (1983) Some early stages of Osmylops (Neuroptera: Nymphidae). Systematic Entomology, 8 (1), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1983.tb00470.x
  64. New, T.R. (1989) Handbook of Zoology. Vol. 4. Arthropoda: Insecta. Part 30. Planipennia (Lacewings). Walter De Gruyter, Berlin, 132 pp. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110858815.111
  65. New, T.R. (1991) Neuroptera (lacewings). In: Naumann, I.D. (Ed.): The Insects of Australia, Vol. I. 2nd edition, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, pp. 525–542.
  66. New, T.R. & Lambkin, K.J. (1989) The larva of Norfolius (Neuroptera: Nymphidae). Systematic Entomology, 14 (1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1989.tb00266.x
  67. Nicoli Aldini, R. (2005 [2007]) Observation on the larval morphology on the antlion Myrmeleon bore (Tjelder, 1941) (Neuroptera Myrmeleontidae) and its life cycle in the Po Valley (northern Italy). Annali Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Ferrara, 8, 59–66.
  68. Oswald, J.D. (2021) LDL Neuropterida: Neuropterida Species of the World (version Jul 2018). In: Roskov, Y., Ower, G., Orrell, T., Nicolson, D., Bailly, N., Kirk, P.M., Bourgoin, T., DeWalt, R.E., Decock, W., Nieukerken, E. van, Zarucchi, J. & Penev, L. (Eds) (2021): Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2021-05-07. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, Netherlands. ISSN 2405-8858. Available from: https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/dataset/1055 (accessed 28 May 2021).
  69. Pérez-de la Fuente, R., Delclòs, X., Peñalver, E., Speranza, M., Wierzchos, J., Ascaso, C. & Engel, M.S. (2012) Early evolution and ecology of camouflage in insects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109 (52), 21414–21419. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1213775110
  70. Pérez-de la Fuente, R., Delclòs, X., Peñalver, E. & Engel, M.S. (2016) A defensive behavior and plant-insect interaction in Early Cretaceous amber—the case of the immature lacewing Hallucinochrysa diogenesi. Arthropod Structure & Development, 45 (2), 133–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asd.2015.08.002
  71. Pérez-de la Fuente, R., Peñalver, E., Azar, D. & Engel, M.S. (2018) A soil-carrying lacewing larva in Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber. Scientific Reports, 8 (1), 16663. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-34870-1
  72. Pérez-de la Fuente, R., Engel, M.S., Azar, D. & Peñalver, E. (2019) The hatching mechanism of 130-million-year-old insects: an association of neonates, egg shells and egg bursters in Lebanese amber. Palaeontology, 62 (4), 547–559. https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12414
  73. Pérez-de la Fuente, R., Engel, M.S., Delclòs, X. & Peñalver, E. (2020) Straight-jawed lacewing larvae (Neuroptera) from Lower Cretaceous Spanish amber, with an account on the known amber diversity of neuropterid immatures. Cretaceous Research, 106, 104200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2019.104200
  74. Perrichot, V. (2003) Environnements paraliques à ambre et à végétaux du Crétacé Nord-Aquitain (Charentes, Sud-Ouest de la France). Unpublished PhD Thesis, Universitéì Rennes 1, Rennes, France. 213 pp.
  75. Pierre, F. (1952) Morphologie, milieu biologique et comporte-ment de trois Crocini nouveaux du Sahara Nord-Occidental (Planipennes Nemopteridae). Annales de la Société Entomologique de France, 119, 1–22.
  76. Riek, E.F. (1970) Neuroptera. In: Waterhouse, D.F. (Ed.), The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press, Canberra, pp. 472–494.
  77. Roux, P. (1833) Lettre relative à divers Coquilles, Crustacés, Insectes, Reptiles et Oiseaux, Observés en Égypte. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 28, 72–78. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.8009
  78. Satar, A., Suludere, Z., Canbulat, S. & Özbay, C. (2006) Rearing the larval stages of Distoleon tetragrammicus (Fabricius, 1798) (Neuroptera, Myrmeleontidae) from egg to adult, with notes on their behaviour. Zootaxa, 1371 (1), 57–64. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1371.1.5
  79. Satar, A., Suludere, Z., Candan, S. & Canbulat, S. (2007) Morphology and surface structure of eggs and first instar larvae of Croce schmidti (Navás, 1927) (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). Zootaxa, 1554 (1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1554.1.4
  80. Schaum, H.R. (1857) Necrophilus arenarius Roux: die muthmassliche Larve von Nemoptera. Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift, 1 (1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/mmnd.18570010105
  81. Suludere, Z., Satar, A., Candan, S. & Canbulat, S. (2006) Morphology and surface structure of eggs and first instar larvae of Dielocroce baudii (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae) from Turkey. Entomological News, 117 (5), 521–530. https://doi.org/10.3157/0013-872X(2006)117[521:MASSOE]2.0.CO;2
  82. Tauber, C.A., Tauber, M.J. & Albuquerque, G.S. (2009) Neuroptera (lacewings, antlions). In: Resh, V.H. & Cardé, R.T. (Eds), Encyclopedia of insects. 2nd Edition, Academic Press, San Diego, London, Burlington, pp. 695–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374144-8.00190-9
  83. Tillyard, R.J. (1919) Studies in Australian Neuroptera. No. 7. The life-history of Psychopsis elegans (Guérin). Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 43, 787–818.
  84. Tillyard, R.J. (1922) The life-history of the Australian moth-lacewing, Ithone fusca, Newman (Order Neuroptera Planipennia). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 13 (2), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000748530002811X
  85. Tillyard, R.J. (1926) The insects of Australia and New Zealand. Angus and Robertson Ltd., Sydney, 560 pp.
  86. Tröger, E.J. (1993) Die Larve von Nemoptera coa (Linnaeus, 1758). (Neuropteroidea, Planipennia). Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 40 (2), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/mmnd.19930400218
  87. Tusun, S. & Satar, A. (2016) Morphology, surface structure and sensory receptors of larvae of Dielocroce ephemera (Gerstaecker, 1894) (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae). Entomological News, 126 (2), 144–149. https://doi.org/10.3157/021.126.0211
  88. van der Weele, H.W. (1908) Fasc. VIII. Ascalaphiden. Collections zoologiques du Baron Edm. De Selys Longchamps. Catalogue systématique et descriptif. Hayez, Imprimerie des Académies, Brussels, 326 pp.
  89. Wang, B., Xia, F., Engel, M.S., Perrichot, V., Shi, G., Zhang, H., Chen, J., Jarzembowski, E.A., Wappler, T. & Rust, J. (2016) Debris-carrying camouflage among diverse lineages of Cretaceous insects. Science Advances, 2 (6), e1501918. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501918
  90. Weidner, H. (1958) Einige interessante Insektenlarven aus der Bernsteininklusen-Sammlung des Geologischen Staatsinstituts Hamburg (Odonata, Coleoptera, Megaloptera, Planipennia). Mitteilungen aus dem Geologischen Staatsinstitut in Hamburg, 27, 50–68.
  91. Weitschat, W. & Wichard, W. (2002) Atlas of plants and animals in Baltic amber. Verlag Dr Friedrich Pfeil, München, 256 pp.
  92. Winterton, S.L., Hardy, N.B. & Wiegmann, B.M. (2010) On wings of lace: phylogeny and Bayesian divergence time estimates of Neuropterida (Insecta) based on morphological and molecular data. Systematic Entomology, 35 (3), 349–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.2010.00521.x
  93. Winterton, S.L., Lemmon, A.R., Gillung, J.P., Garzon, I.J., Badano, D., Bakkes, D.K., Breitkreuz, L.C.V., Engel, M., Moriarty, E.M., Liu, X., Machado, R.J.P., Skevington, J.H. & Oswald, J.D. (2018) Evolution of lacewings and allied orders using anchored phylogenomics (Neuroptera, Megaloptera, Raphidioptera). Systematic Entomology, 43 (2), 330–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12278
  94. Withycombe, C.L. (1923) XIII. Systematic notes on the Crocini (Nemopteridae), with descriptions of new genera and species. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, 71 (1–2), 269–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1923.tb03337.x
  95. Withycombe, C.L. (1925) XV. Some aspects of the biology and morphology of the Neuroptera. With special reference to the immature stages and their possible phylogenetic significance. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, 72 (3–4), 303–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1925.tb03362.x
  96. Xia, F., Yang, G., Zhang, Q., Shi, G. & Wang, B. (2015) Amber: life through time and space. Science Press, Beijing, viii + 197 pp.
  97. Zhang, W.W. (2017) Frozen dimensions of the fossil insects and other invertebrates in amber. Chonqing University Press, Chonqing, 697 pp.
  98. Zimmermann, D., Randolf, S. & Aspöck, U. (2019) From chewing to sucking via phylogeny—from sucking to chewing via ontogeny: mouthparts of Neuroptera. In: Krenn, H.W. (Ed.), Insect mouthparts. Form, function, development and performance. Zoological Monographs. Vol. 5. Springer Nature, Cham, pp. 361–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29654-4_11