Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer
Responsive image
Issue: Vol. 26 No. 1: 8 June 2022
Type: Article
Published: 2022-06-08
DOI: 10.11646/bionomina.26.1.1
Page range: 1–33
Abstract views: 517
PDF downloaded: 8

Type species of genera in zoological nomenclature

Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Université, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 30, 75005 Paris, France
Taxonomy ergotaxonomy nomenclature Code availability authorship date allocation ostension onomatophores types type species designation

Abstract

A basic concept of zoological nomenclature is that of onomatophore, called ‘name-bearing type’ in the Code. Onomatophores allow objective allocation of the nomina to taxa through specimens or nominal taxa. In the genus-series (i.e., for nomina of genera and subgenera), this allocation is made through nominal species, the so-called ‘type species’. The latter are involved not only in the taxonomic allocation of nomina to taxa, but also in the nomenclatural availability and validity of nomina. Failure to designate validly type species for genus-series nomina have therefore deleterious consequences, as illustrated here through several examples. Close attention given by taxonomists to the criteria allowing valid designation of type species, both in ancient works and in future ones, is therefore important. In order to improve the work of taxonomists in this respect, a few suggestions of changes in the Code are provided.

References

  1. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1926) Opinion 92. Sixteen generic names of Pisces, Amphibia, and Reptilia placed in the Official List of Generic Names. In: Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, Opinions 91 to 97, in: Smithsonian miscellaneous Collections, 73 (4): 3–4.

  2. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1961) International code of zoological nomenclature. ‘First edition’. London (International Trust for zoological Nomenclature): i–xviii + 1–176.

  3. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1964) International code of zoological nomenclature. ‘Second edition’. London (International Trust for zoological Nomenclature): i–xx + 1–177.

  4. Anonymous (1982) Notices. Bulletin of zoological Nomenclature, 39 (4): 229–230.

  5. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1985) International code of zoological nomenclature. ‘Third edition’. London (International Trust for zoological Nomenclature): i–xx + 1–338.

  6. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (1999) International code of zoological nomenclature. ‘Fourth edition’. London (International Trust for zoological Nomenclature): i–xxix + 1–306.

  7. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (2003) Declaration 44. Amendment of Article 74.7.3. Bulletin of zoological Nomenclature, 60 (4): 263.

  8. Anonymous [International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature] (2012) Amendment of Articles 8, 9, 10, 21 and 78 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature to expand and refine methods of publication. Bulletin of zoological Nomenclature, 69 (3): 161–169. <https://doi.org/10.21805/bzn.v69i3.a8.161>.

  9. Agassiz, L. (1838) Anhang. In: J. J. Tschudi, Classification der Batrachier, mit Berücksichtigung der fossilen Thiere dieser Abtheilung der Reptilien, Neuchâtel (Petitpierre): [i‒ii].

  10. Baird, S. F. (1850) Revision of the North American tailed-batrachia, with descriptions of new genera and species. Journal of the Academy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, ‘1849’, (2), 1: 281–294.

  11. Bhatti, J. S. (1978) Preliminary revision of Taeniothrips. Oriental Insects, 12 (2): 157–199. <https://doi.org/10.1080/00305316.1978.10434565>.

  12. Blainville, H. de (1814) Mémoire sur la classification méthodique des animaux Mollusques, et établissement d’une nouvelle consiération pour y parvenir. Bulletin des Sciences, par la Société philomatique de Paris, 1814: 175‒180.

  13. Blanchard, É. (1871) Note sur une nouvelle salamandre gigantesque (Sieboldia Davidiana Blanch.) de la Chine occidentale. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Académie des Sciences, 73: 79‒80.

  14. Blanchard, R. (ed.) (1905) Règles internationales de la nomenclature zoologique adoptées par les Congrès Internationaux de Zoologie. Paris (Rudeval): 1–64.

  15. Bonaparte, C. L. (1850) Conspectus systematum herpetologiae et amphibiologiae. Editio altera reformata. Lugduni Batavorum (E. J. Brill): 1 pl.

  16. Brimley, C. S. (1915) List of Reptiles and Amphibians of North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell scientific Society, 30 (4): 195–206.

  17. Brown, A. E. (1908) Generic types of Nearctic Reptilia and Amphibia. Proceedings of the Academy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 60: 112‒127.

  18. Cantino, P. D. & Queiroz, K. de (2020) International code of phylogenetic nomenclature (PhyloCode). Boca Raton, London & New York (CRC Press): i‒xl + 1‒149. <https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429446320>.

  19. Catesby, M. (1754) The natural history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands … Vol. 1. / Histoire naturelle de la Caroline, de la Floride, & des Isles de Bahama … Tome 1. London (Marsh & Wilcox): [i‒v] + i‒vii + 1‒120 + [i], pl. 1‒100 + 1‒20.

  20. Cope, E. D. (1869) A review of the species of Plethodontidae and Desmognathidae. Proceedings of the Academy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 21: 93–118.

  21. Cuvier, G. (1802) Mémoire sur le Clio borealis. Annales du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, 1: 242‒250, 1 pl.

  22. Cuvier, G. (1814) Observations et recherches critiques sur différents poissons de la Méditerranée et, à leur occasion, sur des autres poissons des autres mers plus ou moins liés avec eux. Bulletin des Sciences, par la Société philomatique de Paris, 1814: 80‒92.

  23. Cuvier, G. (1829) Le règne animal distribué d’après son organisation. Deuxième édition. Tome 2. Paris (Deterville): i–xv + 1–406.

  24. Daudin, F. M. (1803) [An. XI] Histoire naturelle des rainettes, des grenouilles et des crapauds. Paris (Bertrandet & Levrault): 1–108, pl. 1–38.

  25. David, P., Vogel, G. & Dubois, A. (2011) On the need to follow rigorously the Rules of the Code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies (type species) for a nominal genus which lacked one: the case of the nominal genus Trimeresurus Lacépède, 1804 (Reptilia: Squamata: Viperidae). Zootaxa, 2992: 1‒51. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2992.1.1>.

  26. Dennler, J. G. (1939) La importancia de la distribución geográfica en la sistemática de los vertebrados. Physis, 16: 41–53, pl. 1–8.

  27. Denys de Montfort, [P.] (1808) Conchyliologie systématique, et classification méthodique des coquilles; offrant leurs figures, leur arrangement générique, leurs descriptions caractéristiques, leurs noms; ainsi que leur synonymie en plusieurs langues. Tome 1. Coquilles univalves, cloisonnées. Paris (F. Schoell): [i–lxxxvii] + 1–409 + [i]. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.10571>.

  28. Denys de Montfort, [P.] (1810) Conchyliologie systématique, et classification méthodique des coquilles; offrant leurs figures, leur arrangement générique, leurs descriptions caractéristiques, leurs noms; ainsi que leur synonymie en plusieurs langues. Tome 2. Coquilles univalves, non cloisonnées. Paris (F. Schoell): [i–iii] + 1–676.

  29. Denys-Montfort, [P.] (1802a) [an X] Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des Mollusques, animaux sans vertèbres et à sang blanc. Tome 1. Paris (Dufart): 1‒390, pl. 1‒7.

  30. Denys-Montfort, [P.] (1802b) [an X] Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des Mollusques, animaux sans vertèbres et à sang blanc. Tome 2. Paris (Dufart): 1‒424, pl. 8‒26.

  31. Denys-Montfort, [P.] (1802c) [an X] Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des Mollusques, animaux sans vertèbres et à sang blanc. Tome 3. Paris (Dufart): 1‒424, pl. 27‒41.

  32. Denys-Montfort, [P.] (1802d) [an X] Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des Mollusques, animaux sans vertèbres et à sang blanc. Tome 4. Paris (Dufart): 1‒376, pl. 42‒50.

  33. Dubois, A. (1982) Dendrobates Wagler, 1830 and Dendrobatidae Cope, 1865: (Amphibia): problems surrounding these names. Z.N.(S.)1930. (2) Dendrobates Wagler, 1830 and Dendrobatidae Cope, 1865 (Amphibia, Anura): proposed conservation. Bulletin of zoological Nomenclature, 39 (4): 267–278. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.23594>.

  34. Dubois, A. (1987a) Living amphibians of the world: a first step towards a comprehensive checklist. Alytes, 5 (3): 99–149.

  35. Dubois, A. (1987b) Again on the nomenclature of frogs. Alytes, 6 (1–2): 27–55.

  36. Dubois, A. (1987c) Elachistocleis Parker, 1927 (Amphibia, Anura): proposed conservation. Alytes, 6 (1–2): 75–84.

  37. Dubois, A. (1992) Notes sur la classification des Ranidae (Amphibiens, Anoures). Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon, 61 (10): 305–352. <https://doi.org/10.3406/linly.1992.11011>.

  38. Dubois, A. (2000) Synonymies and related lists in zoology: general proposals, with examples in herpetology. Dumerilia, 4 (2): 33–98.

  39. Dubois, A. (2005a) Propositions pour l’incorporation des nomina de taxons de rang supérieur dans le Code international de nomenclature zoologique. In: A. Dubois, O. Poncy, V. Malécot & N. Léger (ed.), Comment nommer les taxons de rang supérieur en zoologie et en botanique?, Biosystema, 23: 73–96.

  40. Dubois, A. (2005b) Proposed Rules for the incorporation of nomina of higher-ranked zoological taxa in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. 1. Some general questions, concepts and terms of biological nomenclature. Zoosystema, 27 (2): 365–426. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1337.1.1>.

  41. Dubois, A. (2006) Proposed Rules for the incorporation of nomina of higher-ranked zoological taxa in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. 2. The proposed Rules and their rationale. Zoosystema, 28 (1): 165–258. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1337.1.1>.

  42. Dubois, A. (2007) Phylogeny, taxonomy and nomenclature: the problem of taxonomic categories and of nomenclatural ranks. Zootaxa, 1519: 27–68. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1519.1.3>.

  43. Dubois, A. (2008) Phylogenetic hypotheses, taxa and nomina in zoology. In: A. Minelli, L. Bonato & G. Fusco, (ed.), Updating the Linnaean heritage: names as tools for thinking about animals and plants, Zootaxa, 1950 (1): 51–86. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1950.1.7>.

  44. Dubois, A. (2011) The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature must be drastically improved before it is too late. Bionomina, 2: 1–104. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.2.1.1>.

  45. Dubois, A. (2013) Zygoidy, a new nomenclatural concept. Bionomina, 6: 1–25. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.6.1.1>.

  46. Dubois, A. (2015) The Duplostensional Nomenclatural System for higher zoological nomenclature. Dumerilia, 5: 1–108.

  47. Dubois, A. (2017a) A few problems in the generic nomenclature of insects and amphibians, with recommendations for the publication of new generic nomina in zootaxonomy and comments on taxonomic and nomenclatural databases and websites. Zootaxa, 4237 (1): 1–16. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4237.1.1>.

  48. Dubois, A. (2017b) The nomenclatural status of Hysaplesia, Hylaplesia, Dendrobates and related nomina (Amphibia, Anura), with general comments on zoological nomenclature and its governance, as well as on taxonomic databases and websites. Bionomina, 11: 1–48. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.11.1.1>.

  49. Dubois, A. (2020) Allocation of nomina to taxa in zoological nomenclature. Bionomina, 18: 1‒43. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.18.1.1>.

  50. Dubois, A. (2021) Recommendations concerning the presentation of synonymic and related lists in zootaxonomy: the example of the family Cryptobranchidae Fitzinger, 1826 (Amphibia, Urodela). Bionomina, 25: 52‒69. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.25.1.4>.

  51. Dubois, A. & Aescht, E. (ed.) (2019) LZC Session 18. The term type. Dumerilia, 8: 37‒41.

  52. Dubois, A., Bauer, A. M., Ceríaco, L. M. P., Dusoulier, F., Frétey, T., Löbl, I., Lorvelec, O., Ohler, A., Stopiglia, R. & Aescht, E. (2019) The Linz Zoocode project: a set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019). Bionomina, 17: 1‒111. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.17.1.1>.

  53. Dubois, A. & Bour, R. (2010) The nomenclatural status of the nomina of amphibians and reptiles created by Garsault (1764), with a parsimonious solution to an old nomenclatural problem regarding the genus Bufo (Amphibia, Anura), comments on the taxonomy of this genus, and comments on some nomina created by Laurenti (1768). Zootaxa, 2447: 1–52. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2447.1.1>.

  54. Dubois, A. & Frétey, T. (2020) Herpetological higher taxa nomina. 1. Introduction and methodology. Bionomina, 19: 1‒56. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.19.1.1>.

  55. Dubois, A., Frétey, T., Lorvelec, O. & Ohler, A. (2021b) The nomenclatural status of the amphibian and reptile nomina introduced by La Cepède in his Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupèdes Ovipares et des Serpens, with comments on various questions of zoological nomenclature. Bionomina, 23: 1‒180. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.23.1.1>.

  56. Dubois, A. & Ohler, A. (1997) Early scientific names of Amphibia Anura. I. Introduction. Bulletin du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, (4), 18 (3–4): 297–320.

  57. Dubois, A., Ohler, A. & Pyron, R. A. (2021a) New concepts and methods for phylogenetic taxonomy and nomenclature in zoology, exemplified by a new ranked cladonomy of recent amphibians (Lissamphibia). Megataxa, 5 (1): 1‒738. <https://doi.org/10.11646/megataxa.5.1.1>.

  58. Dubois, A. & Raffaëlli, J. (2009) A new ergotaxonomy of the family Salamandridae Goldfuss, 1820 (Amphibia, Urodela). Alytes, 26 (1–4): 1–85.

  59. Duméril, A.-M.-C. & Bibron, G. (1841) Erpétologie générale ou Histoire naturelle complète des Reptiles. Tome 8. Paris (Roret): [i–iii] + i–ii + 1–792.

  60. Farber, P. L. (1976) The type-concept in zoology during the first half of the nineteenth century. Journal of the History of Biology, 9 (1): 93–119. <https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00129174>.

  61. Fitzinger, L. I. (1826) Neue Classification der Reptilien. Wien (Heubner): i–viii + 1–66, 1 tab.

  62. Fitzinger, L. (1835) Entwurf einer systematischen Anordnung der Schildkröten nach den Grundsätzen der natürlichen Methode. Annalen des Wiener Museums der Naturgeschichte, 1: 103–128.

  63. Fitzinger, L. J. F. J. (1843) Systema Reptilium. Fasciculus primus. Amblyglossae. Vindobonae (Braumüller & Seidel): 1–106 + i–ix.

  64. Fleming, J. (1822) The philosophy of zoology, or a general view of the structure, functions and classification of animals. Vol. 2. Edinburgh (Archibald Constable & Co.): 1–618.

  65. Frost, D. R. (ed.) (1985) Amphibian species of the world. Lawrence (Allen Press & Association of Systematics Collections): [i–iv] + i–v + 1–732.

  66. Frost, D. (2021) Amphibian species of the world: an online reference. Version 6.1. American Museum of Natural History, New York, U.S.A. <https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/index.php>. [Last accessed on 1st December 2021].

  67. Garsault, F. A. P. de (1764) Les figures des plantes et animaux d’usage en médecine, décrits dans la Matière Médicale de Mr. Geoffroy Médecin. Paris: [i–v] + 1–20, pl. 644–729. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.49481>.

  68. Gravenhorst, J. L. C. (1829) Deliciae Musei Zoologici Vratislaviensis. Fasciculus primus, continens Chelonios et Batrachia. Lipsiae (Sumptibus Leopoldi Vossii): i–xiv + 1–106, pl. 1–17.

  69. Gray, J. E. (1825) A synopsis of the genera of Reptiles and Amphibia, with a description of some new species. Annals of Philosophy, (2), 10: 193–217.

  70. Gray, J. E. (1838) The gigantic Japanese salamander. Annals of natural History, 1 (5): 413. <https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933809512331>.

  71. Green, J. (1818) Descriptions of several species of North American Amphibia, accompanied with observations. Journal of the Academy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1: 348–359.

  72. Green, J. (1827) An account of some new species of salamanders. Contributions of the Maclurian Lyceum to the Arts and Sciences, 1: 3–8.

  73. Green, M. (1925) Standard-species of the Linnean genera of Tetradynamia. Bulletin of miscellaneous Information, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 2: 49‒58. <https://doi.org/10.2307/4107518>.

  74. Hallowell, E. (1856) Descriptions of two new species of Urodeles, from Georgia. Proceedings of the Academy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 8: 130–131.

  75. Hansen, E. D. (1961) Animal diversity. Englewoods Cliffs, New Jersey (Prentice-Hall). i‒xii + 1‒116. [Not seen].

  76. Harlan, R. (1827). Genera of North American Reptilia, and a synopsis of the species. Journal of the Academy of natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 5 (2): 317–372.

  77. Hemming, F. (ed.) (1953) Copenhagen decisions on zoological nomenclature. Additions to, and modifications of, the Règles internationales de la nomenclature zoologique; approved and adopted by the Fourteenth International Congress of Zoology, Copenhagen, August, 1953, London (International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature): i–xxxi + 1–135.

  78. Karny, H. (1912) Revision der von Serville aufgestellten Thysanopteren-Genera. Zoologische Annalen, 4: 322–344.

  79. Lacépède, [de, B. G. E .L.] (1804) Mémoire sur plusieurs animaux de la Nouvelle Hollande dont la description n’a pas encore été publiée. Annales du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, 4: 184–211, pl. 55–57.

  80. Latreille, P. A. (1802) [an X] Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des Crustacés et des Insectes. Familles natrelles des genres. Tome 4. Paris (Dufart): 1‒387, pl. 16‒37.

  81. Latreille, P. A. (1810) Considérations générale sur l’ordre naturel des animaux composant les classes des Crustacés, des Arachnides et des Insectes. Paris (F. Schoell): [1–9] + 10–444. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.39620>.

  82. Laurenti, J. N. (1768) Specimen medicum, exhibens synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium austriacorum. Thesis. Viennae (Joan. Thom. Nob. de Trattnern): i–ii + 1–215, pl. 1–5. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.5108>.

  83. Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Tomus 1. Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii): [i–iv] + 1–824. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.542>.

  84. McCranie, J., Vieites, D. & Wake, D. (2008) Description of a new divergent lineage and three new species of Honduran salamanders of the genus Oedipina (Caudata, Plethodontidae). Zootaxa, 1930 (1): 1–17. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1930.1.1>.

  85. Méhelÿ, L. v. (1901) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden von Neu Guinea. Természetrajzi Füzetek, Budapest, 24: 169–271, pl. 4–12.

  86. Merrem, B. (1820) Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien. Tentamen systematis Amphibiorum. Marburg (Iohann Christian Krieger): [i–xv + 1–191] × 2, 1 pl. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.5037>.

  87. Metcalf, M. M. (1940) Further studies on the opalinid ciliate infusorians and their hosts. Proceedings of the United States national Museum, 87: 465–634. <https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00963801.87-3077.465>.

  88. Minelli, A. (2019) Zoological nomina with typus or typicus as the specific epithet. Bionomina, 16: 1‒21. <https://doi.org/10.11646/bionomina.16.1.1>.

  89. Mound, L. A. & Hastenpflug-Vesmanis, A. (2021) All genera of the world: order Thysanoptera (Animalia: Arthropoda: Insecta). Megataxa, 6 (1): 2‒69. <https://doi.org/10.11646/megataxa.6.1.2>.

  90. Nieden, F. (1926) Amphibia Anura II. Engystomatidae. Das Tierreich, 49: i–xvi + 1–110. <https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111385464-003>.

  91. Noble, G. K. (1931) The biology of the Amphibia. New York (Dover): i–xviii + 1–577. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.82448>.

  92. Ohler, A., Amarasinghe, A. A. T., Andreone, F., Bauer, A., Borkin, L., Channing, A., Chuaynkern, Y., Das, I., Deuti, K., Frétey, T., Matsui, M., Nguyen, T., Pyron, A., Rödel, M. O., Segniagbeto, G. H., Vasudevan, K. & Dubois, A. (2014) Case 3666. Dicroglossidae Dubois, 1987 (Amphibia, Anura): proposed conservation. Bulletin of zoological Nomenclature, 71 (4): 244–249. <https://doi.org/10.21805/bzn.v71i4.a15>.

  93. Oken [L.] (1821) Naturgeschichte für Schulen. Leipzig (Brockhaus): i‒xxxvii + 1‒1004, pl. 1‒4.

  94. Parker, H. W. (1927) The brevicipitid frogs allied to the genus Gastrophryne. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 187: 1–6.

  95. Pelikán, J. (1947) Notice à la connaissance des Thysanoptères de la tourbière de Rejvíz. Entomologické Listy (Folia entomologica), 10: 2–16. [In Czech].

  96. Pennisi, E. (2001) Linnaeus’s last stand? Science, 291: 2304‒2305 + 2307. <https://doi.org/10.1126/science.291.5512.2304>.

  97. Peracca, M. G. (1904) Rettili ed Anfibii dell’Eritra raccolti dal Dott. Achille Tellini nel 1903. Bolletino dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia comparata della reale Università di Torino, 19 (467): 1–6. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.11597>.

  98. Priesner, H. (1940) Thysanopterologica IX. Philippine Journal of Science, 41: 403–409.

  99. Pyron, R. A. & Beamer, D. A. (2020) The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders. Zootaxa, 4838: 221–247. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4838.2.4>.

  100. Rafinesque, C. S. (1815) Analyse de la nature ou tableau de l’univers et des corps organisés. Palerme (Jean Barravecchia): 1–124, 1 pl. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.106607>.

  101. Rafinesque, C. S. (1818) Further account of discoveries in natural history, in the western states. American monthly magazine and critical review, 4: 39–42.

  102. Rafinesque, C. S. (1819) Prodrome de 70 nouveaux genres d’animaux découverts dans l’intérieur des États-Unis d’Amérique, durant l’année 1818. Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d’Histoire naturelle, 88: 417‒429.

  103. Rafinesque, C. S. (1820) Annals of nature, or annual synopsis of new genera and species of animals, plants, &c. discovered in North America. First annual number, for 1820. Lexington (Thomas Smith): 1‒16. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.106763>.

  104. Rafinesque, C. S. (1832) On 3 new water salamanders of Kentucky. In: C. S. Rafinesque, Atlantic journal, and friend of knowledge, Philadelphia, 1: 121.

  105. Rafinesque-Schmaltz, C. S. (1814) Principes fondamentaux de somiologie ou les loix [sic] de la nomenclature et de la classification de l’empire organique, ou des animaux et des végétaux, contenant les règles essentielles de l’art de leur imposer des noms immuables et de les classer méthodiquement. Palerme (Franc. Abate): 1–52.

  106. Saliba, E. M., Vignes-Lebbe, R., Dubois, A. & Ohler, A. (2021) ZooNom: an online thesaurus for alleviating ambiguity in the terminology of zoological nomenclature. Zootaxa, 5071 (1): 42‒50. <https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5071.1.2>.

  107. Savage, J. M. (1986) Book review. La nomenclature supragenerique des Amphibiens Anoures. Alain Dubois. 1984. Copeia, 1986: 259‒262. <https://doi.org/10.2307/1444926>.

  108. Schlegel, [H.] (1826) Notice sur l’erpétologie de l’île de Java; par M. Boie. (Ouvrage manuscrit). Bulletin des Sciences naturelles et de Géologie, 9 (2): 233‒240.

  109. Schliephake, D. G. (1972) Systematische und morphologisch vergleichende Beziehungen der europäischen Genera der Subtribus Thripina (Thysanoptera). Folia entomologica hungarica, 25 (14): 271‒277.

  110. Schneider, I. G. (1799) Historiae Amphibiorum naturalis et literariae. Fasciculus primus, continens Ranas, Calamitas, Bufones, Salamandras et Hydros, in genera et species descriptos notisque suis distinctos. Jena (Frommann): i–xv + 1–264, pl. 1–2. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.78757>.

  111. Schopf, J. M. (1960) Emphasis on holotype (?). Science, 131 (3406): 1043. <https://doi.org/10.1126/science.131.3406.1043.a>.

  112. Segalla, M. V., Berneck, B., Canedo, C., Caramaschi, U., Cruz, C. A. G., Garcia, P. C. A., Grant, T., Haddad, C. F. B., Lourenço, A. C. C., Mângia, S., Mott, T., Nascimento, L. B., Toledo, L. F., Werneck, F. P. & Langone, J. A. (2021) List of Brazilian Amphibians. Herpetologia brasileira, 10 (1): 121‒216.

  113. Shaw, G. (1802) General zoology or Systematic natural history. Volume 3, part 1. Amphibia. London (Thomas Davison): i–vi + [1–2] + 1–615, pl. 1–140.

  114. Shaw, G. & Nodder, F. P. (ed.) (1798) The naturalist’s miscellany; containing accurate and elegant coloured figures of the most curious and beautiful productions of nature … Volume 9. London (Nodder & Co.): 1‒2 + [i‒cxlviii] + 1‒2, pl. 301‒348.

  115. Simpson, G. G. (1940) Types in modern taxonomy. American Journal of Science, 238: 413–431. <https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.238.6.413>.

  116. Simpson, G. G. (1960) Types and name-bearers. Science, 131: 1684. <https://doi.org/10.1126/science.131.3414.1684.a>.

  117. Spix, J. B. de (1824) Animalia nova sive species novae Testudinum et Ranarum quas in itinere per Brasiliam annis MDCCCXVII-MDCCCXX jussu et auspiciis Maximiliani Josephi I Bavariae Regis suscepto collegit et descripsit Dr. J. B. de Spix. Monachii (Hübschmann): i–iii + 1–53, pl. 1–22. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.5117>.

  118. Stabler, R. M. & Chen, T.-T. (1936) Observations on an Endamoeba parasitizing opalinid ciliates. Biological Bulletin, 70 (1): 56–71. <https://doi.org/10.2307/1537312>.

  119. Stannius, H. (1856) Handbuch der Anatomie der Wirbelthiere. 2. Zootomie der Amphibien. In: C. T. Von Siebold & H. Stannius, Handbuch der Zootomie, Vol. 1: i–vi + 1‒270.

  120. Stejneger, L. (1910) The amphibian generic name Engystoma untenable. Proceedings of the biological Society of Washington, 23: 165–168.

  121. Stejneger, L. (1936) Types of the amphibian and reptilian genera proposed by Laurenti in 1768. Copeia, 1936 (3), 133–141. <https://doi.org/10.2307/1435820>.

  122. Strecker, J.K. (1909) Notes on the narrow-mouthed toads (Engystoma) and the description of a new species from southeastern Texas. Proceedings of the biological Society of Washington, 22: 115–120.

  123. Strickland, H. E., Henslow, J. S., Phillips, J., Shuckard, W. E., Richardson, J., Waterhouse, G. R., Owen, R., Yarrell, W., Jenyns, L., Darwin, C., Broderip, W. J. & Westwood, J. O. (1843) Series of propositions for rendering the nomenclature of zoology uniform and permanent, being the Report of a Committee for the consideration of the subject appointed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Annals & Magazine of natural History, (1), 11: 259–275. <https://doi.org/10.1080/03745484309445300>.

  124. Temminck, C. J. (1836) Coup-d’oeil sur la faune des Îles de la Sonde et de l’Empire du Japon. Discours préliminaire destiné à servir d’introduction à la Faune du Japon. Amsterdam (Müller): i‒xxx. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.119899>.

  125. Tschudi, I. J. (1837) Über den Homo diluvii testis, Andrias Scheuchzeri. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde, Stuttgart, 5: 545‒547.

  126. Tschudi, J. J., von (1838) Classification der Batrachier, mit Berucksichtigung der fossilen Thiere dieser Abtheilung der Reptilien. Neuchâtel (Petitpierre): 1–98, pl. 1–6 + [i–ii]. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.4883>.

  127. Uzel, H. (1895) Monographie der Ordnung Thysanoptera. Königrätz, Bohemia: 1‒472.

  128. Wagler, J. (1827) [Untitled footnote]. In: H. Boie an Wagler, Isis von Oken, 20: 726.

  129. Wagler, J. (1830) Natürliches System der Amphibien, mit vorangehender Classification der Säugethiere und Vögel. München, Stuttgart & Tübingen (Cotta): i–vi + 1–354, 2 pl. <https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.58730>.

  130. Westwood, J. O. (1837) On generic nomenclature. Magazine of natural History, (n.s.), 1: 169‒173.

  131. Whevell, W. (1840) The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history. Volume 1. London (John W. Parker): i‒cxx + 1‒523.

  132. Williams, C. B. (1940) On ‘type’ specimens. Annals of the entomological Society of America, 33 (4): 621‒624. <https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/33.4.621>.

  133. Witteveen, J. (2016) Suppressing synonymy with a homonym: the emergence of the nomenclatural type concept in nineteenth century natural history. Journal of the History of Biology, 49: 135–189. <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-015-9410-y>.