Abstract
The anareolate New World subfamily Cladomorphinae Bradley & Galil, 1977 is reviewed and keys to the six tribes currently included are presented; these are: Cladomorphini Bradley & Galil, 1977, Cladoxerini Karny, 1923, Cranidiini Günther, 1953, Pterinoxylini n. trib., Hesperophasmatini Bradley & Galil, 1977 and Haplopodini Günther, 1953 rev. stat.. New diagnoses are presented for all these tribes and possible relationships within Cladomorphinae are discusssed. Morphology of the genitalia and egg-structures indicate Cladomorphinae as presently treated to be polyphyletic. Two subordinate groups are recognized within present Cladomorphinae, which differ considerably in numerous morphological characters of the insects and eggs. The first group and here regarded as Cladomorphinae sensu stricto is formed by the mostly South American Cladomorphini + Cranidiini + Cladoxerini, while the second group is formed by the predominantly Caribbean Hesperophasmatini + Pterinoxylini n. trib. + Haplopodini.
Members of the first group (= Cladomorphini sensu stricto) share the dorsally carinate basitarsus in which the two dorsal carinae are melted with another, increasingly elongated gonapophyses VIII of females which are noticeably longer than gonapophyses IX and lamellate as well as strongly displaced medioventral carina of the profemora. Cranidiini + Cladomorphini share the strongly elongated and filiform gonapophyses VIII and presence of gonoplacs in the females, specialized poculum of males and presence of a median line in the eggs. Cranidiini differs from all other tribes of Cladomorphinae by the entirely unarmed legs of both sexes, distinctly broadened and leaf-like body and prominent longitudinal keel of the mesosternum of females, prominently enlarged poculum and spinulose phallus of males as well as the conspicuous narrowing of the posteromedian gap of the internal micropylar plate of the eggs and noticeably separated median line. Cladomorphini is characteristic for the specialized vomer and poculum of males and distinct opercular structures of the eggs. Certain representatives of Cladomorphini indicate relationships to the “Phanocles-group” of Diapheromerinae: Diapheromerini, hence Cladomorphini as presently treated may be paraphyletic. The exclusively South American Cladoxerini (= Baculini n. syn.) differs from the other two tribes of Cladomorphinae sensu stricto by the distinctly serrate profemora of both sexes and conspicuously shortened antennae of females, which consist of less than 30 segments and are much shorter than the profemora in females. Genital morphology, such as the elongated gonapophyses VIII and presence of gonoplacs in females, as well as the lamellate medioventral carina of the profemora indicate close relation to Cladomorphini. Cranidiini appears to be the sister-taxon of Cladomorphini + Cladoxerini. The tribe Baculini Günther, 1953 is synonymised with Cladoxerini (n. syn.), on the basis that the type-genera of both tribes are congeneric, with Baculum Saussure, 1861 being a junior synonym of Cladoxerus St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1827 (n. syn.). The genus Tersomia Kirby, 1904 is removed from Hesperophasmatini and transferred to Cladoxerini. Wattenwylia Toledo Piza, 1938 is removed from Pachymorphinae: Gratidiini and transferred to Cladoxerini. A detailed new diagnosis is presented for Cranidiini along with a detailed differentiation and the tribe is shown to be monotypical, only containing its type-genus Cranidium Westwood, 1843. All Caribbean genera subsequently added to Cranidiini are removed and transferred to Haplopodini rev. stat..
The three tribes Hesperophasmatini + Pterinoxylini n. trib. + Haplopodini rev. stat. are closely related and might form a monophyletic clade within Cladomorphinae sensu lato. They differ from Cladomorphinae sensu stricto by the short gonapophyses VIII and reduced gonoplacs of females, unspecialized poculum of males and lack of a micropylar line in the eggs. Haplopodini Günther, 1953 is re-established (rev. stat.) and comprises almost exclusively Caribbean genera previously placed in Hesperophasmatini by Bradley & Galil (1977) or Cranidiini by Zompro, (2004). Aploploides Rehn & Hebard, 1938, Diapherodes Gray, 1835, Haplopus Burmeister, 1838 and Paracranidium Brock, 1998 were misplaced in Cranidiini and are transferred to Haplopodini. On the basis of numerous morphological characters of the insects and eggs Hesperophasmatini is removed from Pseudophasmatidae: Xerosomatinae and re-transferred to its previous position in the subfamily Cladomorphinae sensu lato. A detailed newdiagnosis of Hesperophasmatini is presented, but is only provisional since the true diversity is as yet only fractionally known. The lack of a gula distinguishes Hesperophasmatini from all other tribes. The genus Laciphorus Redtenbacher, 1908 is removed from Hesperophasmatini and transferred to Diapheromeridae: Diapheromerinae: Diapheromerini. The new tribe Pterinoxylini n. trib. is established to contain only the type-genus Pterinoxylus Audinet-Serville, 1838. It is closely related and perhaps the sister taxon of Hesperophasmatini, with which it shares the presence of rough sensory areas on the probasisternum and profurcasternum. It differs from Hesperophasmatini and Haplopodini by the presence of a tympanal region (= stridulatory organ) in the alae of females and the alveolar eggs, which possess peripheral opercular and polar structures. Haplopodini is likely to be the sister group of Pterinoxylini n. trib. + Hesperophasmatini.
The tribe Haplopodini rev. stat. is revised at the species level and comprises eight almost exclusively Caribbean genera, four of which are newly described. All eight genera now contained in Haplopodini are described in detail, differentiated from their closest relatives and their relationships and systematic position within Haplopodini are discussed. Keys and maps showing their distributions are presented along with a discussion of the distributional patterns. Detailed descriptions, differential diagnoses, synonymic listings, illustrations, material listings and measurements are given of all 26 currently known species and subspecies of Haplopodini. Four new genera are described within Haplopodini. The monotypical Apteroplopus n. gen. (type-species: Dyme grosse-tuberculata Brunner v. Wattenwyl, 1907) from Honduras is the only taxon of the tribe represented in Central America. It is only known from the male which differs from all other genera by being entirely apterous. Cephaloplopus n. gen. (type-species: Cephaloplopus pulchellus n. sp.) and Parhaplopus n. gen. (type-species: Haplopus cubensis Saussure, 1868) occur only on Hispaniola and Cuba. Both are closely related to Haplopus Burmeister, 1838 but in addition to having noticeably different eggs, both genera differ from Haplopus in several morphological characters. The monotypical Venupherodes n. gen. (type-species: Platycrana venustula Audinet-Serville, 1838) is endemic to Cuba, and in females being apterous resembles the second exclusively Cuban genus Aploploides Rehn & Hebard, 1938. It however differs from all other members of Haplopodini by the laterally expanded mesonotum of females, which overlaps the mesopleurae, as well as the morphology of the eggs. Two species-groups are recognized within Diapherodes Gray, 1835. The gigantea species-group comprises the species from the Lesser Antilles, which are: D. angulata (Fabricius, 1793), Diapherodes dominicae (Rehn & Hebard, 1938), D. gigantea gigantea (Gmélin, 1789), D. gigantea saintluciae n. ssp. and Diapherodes martinicensis Lelong & Langlois, 2005. The three species of the jamaicensis species-group, which are D. achalus (Rehn, 1904), D. jamaicensis (Drury, 1773) and D. laevicollis Redtenbacher, 1906, are restricted to the two Greater Antillean islands Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Haplopus Burmeister, 1838 is the most widely distributed genus being represented on all islands of the Greater Antilles except Jamaica, and also in the Virgin Islands, Bahamas, Florida Keys, Dry Tortugas and as far southwest as the Cayman Islands and Swan Islands.
Nine new species and one new subspecies are described: Cephaloplopus alope n. sp. and Haplopus sobrinus n. sp. from Cuba, Cephaloplopus euchlorus n. sp., Cephaloplopus laetus n. sp., Cephaloplopus pulchellus n. sp., Haplopus brachypterus n. sp., Haplopus intermedius n. sp. and Parhaplopus navarroi n. sp. from Hispaniola, Haplopus woodruffi n. sp. from Cayman Brac (Cayman Islands) and Diapherodes gigantea saintluciae n. ssp. from Saint Lucia. Seven of these are described from both sexes but Cephaloplopus alope n. sp. and Haplopus sobrinus n. sp. are only known from the females and Cephaloplopus laetus n. sp. only from the males. The previously unknown males of Diapherodes angulata (Fabricius, 1793), Diapherodes laevicollis Redtenbacher, 1908, Haplopus bicuspidatus de Haan, 1842 and Parhaplopus cubensis (Saussure, 1868) as well as the previously unknown female of Parhaplopus evadne (Westwood, 1859) n. comb. are described and illustrated for the first time. Descriptions and illustrations of the eggs of eleven species are presented: Cephaloplopus euchlorus n. sp., Cephaloplopus pulchellus n. sp., Diapherodes achalus (Rehn, 1904), Diapherodes dominicae (Rehn & Hebard, 1938), Diapherodes gigantea gigantea (Gmélin, 1789), Diapherodes martinicensis Lelong & Langlois, 2005, Diapherodes jamaicensis (Drury, 1773), Haplopus bicuspidatus de Haan, 1842, Haplopus micropterus St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825, Parhaplopus navarroi n. sp. and Venupherodes venustula (Audinet-Seville, 1838) n. comb.. Type specimens of the newly described taxa are deposited in the collections of ANSP, NHMUK, IIBZ, FSCA, MCZC, MNHN and USNM.
Six species are transferred to other genera (n. comb.): Bacteria grossetuberculata (Brunner v. Wattenwyl, 1907) to Apteroplopus n. gen.; Haplopus cubensis Saussure, 1868 and Haplopus evadne Westwood, 1859 to Parhaplopus n. gen.; Diapherodes venustula (Audinet-Serville, 1838) to Venupherodes n. gen.; Haplopus jamaicensis (Drury, 1773) and Haplopus achalus Rehn, 1904 to Diapherodes Gray, 1835. Mantis angulata Fabricius, 1793 and Diapherodes gigantea dominicae Rehn & Hebard, 1938 are removed from synonymy with D. gigantea (Gmélin, 1789) and shown to be valid species (n. stat.).
Fifteen new synonymies are revealed amongst the species studied: Diapherodes longiscapha Redtenbacher, 1908 = Diapherodes achalus (Rehn, 1904) n. syn.; Haplopus grayi Kaup, 1871 = Diapherodes angulata (Fabricius, 1793) n. syn.; Diapherodes glabricollis Gray, 1835 = Diapherodes jamaicensis (Drury, 1773) n. syn.; Diapherodes pulverulentus Gray, 1835 = Diapherodes jamaicensis (Drury, 1773) n. syn.; Diapherodes christopheri Westwood, 1859 = Diapherodes jamaicensis (Drury, 1773) n. syn.; Haplopus murinus Redtenbacher, 1908 = Diapherodes jamaicensis (Drury, 1773) n. syn.; Haplopus bituberculatum de Haan, 1842 = Haplopus micropterus (St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825) n. syn.; Haplopus cythereus Westwood, 1859 = Haplopus micropterus (St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825) n. syn.; Haplopus ligiolus Redtenbacher, 1908 = Haplopus micropterus (St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825) n. syn.; Haplopus ligia Westwood, 1859 = Haplopus micropterus (St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825) n. syn.; Haplopus mayeri Caudell, 1905 = Haplopus scabricollis (Gray, 1835) n. syn.; Aplopus similis Rehn, 1904 = Haplopus scabricollis Gray, 1835 n. syn.; Diapherodes spinipes Gray, 1835 = Haplopus micropterus (St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825) n. syn.; Haplopus obtusus Redtenbacher, 1908 = Haplopus micropterus (St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825) n. syn. and Haplopus juvenis Redtenbacher, 1908 = Venupherodes venustula (Audinet-Serville, 1838) n. syn..
The previously presumed lost holotype of Cyprocrana microptera St. Fargeau & Audinet-Serville, 1825 (= Phasma angulata Stoll, 1813), was traced in the collection of RMNH. The designation of a neotype has become necessary for Mantis angulata Fabricius, 1793 (in MNCN) and Platycrana venustula Audinet-Serville, 1838 (in MNHU). Lectotypes are designated for eight species: Diapherodes longiscapha Redtenbacher, 1908; Diapherodes scabricollis Gray, 1835; Haplopus christopheri Westwood, 1859; Haplopus cytherea Westwood, 1859; Haplopus juvenis Redtenbacher, 1908; Haplopus ligiolus Redtenbacher, 1908; Haplopus ligia Westwood, 1859 and Haplopus murinus Redtenbacher, 1908.
References
Adams, R. & Adams, M. (1982) Beobachtungen an einer dominikanischen Aplopus-Art (Phasmida). Entomologische Zeitschrift, 92 (19), 263–264.
Arment, C. [Ed.] (2006) Stick Insects of the Continental United States and Canada: species and early studies. Coachwhip Publications, Landisville, Pennsylvania, 204 pp.
Audinet-Serville, J.G. (1831) Revue Méthodique des Insectes de l’ordre des Ortoptères. Annales Sciences Naturelles, 22, 56–65.
Audinet-Serville, J.G. (1838) Histoire Naturelle des Insectes. Orthoptères. Vol. 18. Librarie Encyclopédique de Roret, Paris, 776 pp.
Berthold, A.A. (1827) Latreille's natürliche Familien des Thierreichs. Aus dem französischen mit Bemerkungen und Zusätzen. Von Dr. Arnold Adoph Berthold. Weimar: Landes-Industrie Comptoir. [Translation of Latreille, 1825]
Bolívar, I. (1888) Énumération des Orthoptères de l’ile de Cuba. Mémoires de la société de Zoologie, France, 1, 116–164.
Bradler, S. (2009) Die Phylogenie der Stab- und Gespenstschrecken (Insecta: Phasmatodea). Species, Phylogenie and Evolution, 2 (1), 3–139.
Bradley, J.C. & Galil, B.S. (1977) The taxonomic arrangement of the Phasmatodea with keys to the subfamilies and tribes. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 79 (2), 176–208.
Bragg, P.E. (1996) Type specimens of Phasmida in the Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum, Leiden (Insecta: Phasmida). Zoologische Mededelingen Leiden, 70 (6), 105–115.
Bragg, P.E. (2001) Phasmids of Borneo. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu, 772 pp.
Brock, P.D. (1998a) Catalogue of type specimens of Stick and Leaf-Insects in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (Insecta: Phasmida). Kataloge der wissenschaftlichen Sammlungen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien, 13 (5), 5–72.
Brock, P.D. (1998b) Description of a new genus for a Jamaican stick-insect. Phasmid Studies, 7 (1), 26–29.
Brock, P.D. (1998c) Type material of stick-insects (Insecta: Phasmida) in the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen. Steenstrupia, 24 (1), 23–35.
Brock, P.D., Marshall, J.A., Beccaloni, G.W. & Harman, A,J.E. (in press) The Types of Phasmida in the Natural History Museum, London, UK. Zootaxa.
Brunner von Wattenwyl, C. & Redtenbacher, J. (1892) On the Orthoptera of the Island of Saint Vincent, West Indies. Proceedings of the Zoological Society London, 1892, 196–221.
Brunner v. Wattenwyl, C. (1893) On the Orthoptera of the Island of Grenada, West Indies. Proceedings of the Zoological Society London, 1893, 599–611.
Buckley, T.R., Attanayake, D. & Bradler, S. (2009) Extreme convergence in stick insect evolution: phylogenetic placement of the Lord Howe Island tree lobster. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276, 1055–1062.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1552Buckley, T.R., Attanayake, D., Nylander, J.A.A. & Bradler, S. (2010) The phylogenetic placement and biogeographical origins of the New Zealand stick insects (Phasmatodea). Systematic Entomology, 35, 207–225.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.2009.00505.xBurmeister, H. (1838) Handbuch der Entomologie. II. G.Reimer, Berlin, pp. 553–589.
Bussche, R.A. Van den, Willig, M.R., Chesser, R.K. & Waide, R.B. (1988) Genetic variation and systematics of four taxa of neotropical walking sticks (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 90 (4), 422–427.
Carrera, M. (1960) Insecta amapaensia Diapherodes gibbosa Burmeister, 1839, tipo de um novo genero de Phasmida. Papéis avulsos de Departamento de Zoologica Secretaria da Agricultura, Säo Paulo, 14, 99–104.
Caudell, A.N. (1904) On a collection of non-saltatorial Orthoptera from Paraguay. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 12 (3), 179–188.
Caudell, A.N. (1905) Aplopus mayeri, new species. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 13 (2), 83–85.
Clinquennois, N. (2005) Spathomorpha n. gen.: un nouveau genre de phasme de Madagascar (Phasmatodea, Anareolatae). Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France, 110 (2), 113–124.
Conle, O.V., Hennemann, F.H. & Perez-Gelabert, D.E. (2006) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea III: A new species of the genus Anisomorpha Gray, 1835 (Phasmatodea: Pseudophasmatidae: Pseudophasmatinae) from Hispaniola. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 108 (4), 885–891.
Conle, O.V., Hennemann, F.H. & Perez-Gelabert, D.E. (2008) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea II: Revision of the genus Malacomorpha Rehn, 1906, with the descriptions of seven new species (Phasmatodea: Pseudophasmatidae: Pseudophasmatinae). Zootaxa, 1748, 1–64.
Conle, O.V., Hennemann, F.H. & Perez-Gelabert, D.E. (2014) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea XV: A remarkable new stick insect from highly montane habitats of Hispaniola (Pseudophasmatidae: Xerosomatinae: Hesperophasmatini). Novitates Caribaea, 7, 28–36.
Crother, B.I. & Guyer, C. (1996) Caribbean historical biogeography: was the dispersal-vicariance debate eliminated by an extraterrestrial bolide? Herpetologica, 52, 440–465.
Draper, G., Mann, P. & Lewis, J.F. (1994) Hispaniola. In: Donovan, S.K. & Jackson, T.A. (Eds.), Caribbean geology: an introduction. University of the West Indies Publishers Association/University of the West Indies Press, Kingston, pp. 129–150.
Drury, D. (1773) Illustrations of Natural History etc. Insects. Vol. 2. Flensburg et Lipsia, London, 90 pp.
Eilmus, S. (2009) Hypocyrtus vittatus (Westwood, 1859) – Biologie, Haltung und Zucht. Arthropoda, 17 (1), 30–33.
Fabricius, C. (1775) Systema Entomologiae, sistens insectorum classes, ordines, genera, species, adjectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, observationibus. Officina Libraria Kortii, Flensburgi et Lipsia, 832 pp.
Fabricius, C. (1787) Mantissa Insectorum sistens eorum species nuper detectas adiectis characteribus genericis, differentiis specificis, emendationibus, observationibus, Vol. 1. Impensis Christ. Gottl. Proft, Hafniae, 382 pp.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.36471Fabricius, C. (1793) Entomologia Systematica emendata et aucta. Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, species, adjectissynonymis, Locis observationibus, descriptionibus. Vol. 2. Impensis Christ. Gottl. Proft., Hafniae, 519 pp.
Fabricius, C. (1798) Supplementum Entomologiae Systematicae. Proft et Storch, Hafniae, 572 pp.
Flynn, J.J. & Wyss, A.R. (1998) Recent advances in South American mammalian paleontology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13 (11), 449–-454.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01457-8Gale, M. (1991) Differences between the two Aplopus species. Phasmid Study Group Newsletter, 46, 13.
Gange, A. (1990) PSG No. 48: Aplopus sp.. Phasmid Study Group Newsletter, 45, 18–20. [Culture report]
Gmélin, J.F. (1789) Caroli a Linné, Systema Naturae per Regna tria naturae, secundum, classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. Tom. I. Part 4. Georg Emanuel Beer, Leipzig, 707 pp. [pp. 1517–2224.]
Günther, K. (1953) Über die taxonomische Gliederung und die geographische Verbreitung der Insektenordnung der Phasmatodea. Beiträge zur Entomologie, Berlin, 3, 541–563.
Gray, G.R. (1835) Synopsis of the species of insects --belonging to the family of Phasmidae. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London, 48 pp.
Haan, de W. (1842) Bijdragen tot de Kennis der Orthoptera. In: Temminck, C.J. (Ed.), Verhandlingen over de natuurlijke Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen. Vol. 2. Comissie bij en J. Luchtmans, en C.C. Van der Hoek, Leiden, pp. 95–138, pls. 10–15.
Hebard, M. (1922): Studies on the Mantidae and Phasmidae of Panama. Transactions of the American Entomological Society, 48, 327–362, pls. 14–15.
Hedges, S.B. (2001) Biogeography of the West Indies: an overview. In: Woods, C.A . & Sergile, F.E. (Eds.), Biogeography of the West Indies: Patterns and Perspectives. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 15–33.
Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (1999) Typenmaterial der Phasmatodea im Naturhistorischen Museum Basel. Entomologica Basiliensia, 21, 5–12.
Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (2006) Studies on the New Guinean giant stick-insects of the tribe Stephanacridini Günther, 1953, with the descriptions of a new genus and three new species of Stephanacris Redtenbacher, 1908 (Phasmatodea: „Anareolatae“). Zootaxa, 1283, 1–24.
Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (2007) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea IV. Jeremiodes, n. gen., a new genus of the Subfamily Cladomorphinae, and the description of two new species (Insecta, Phasmatodea, Cladomorphinae, Cladomorphini). Spixiana, 30 (1), 1–11.
Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (2008) Revision of Oriental Phasmatodea: The tribe Pharnaciini Günther, 1953, including the description of the world’s longest insect, and a survey of the subfamilies and tribes (Phasmatodea: “Anareolatae”: Phasmatidae). Zootaxa, 1906, 1–316.
Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (2010) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea X: redescriptions of Aplopocranidium Zompro, 2004 and Jeremia Redtenbacher, 1908, with a survey of the tribe Cladomorphini Brunner v. Wattenwyl, 1893 and keys to the genera (Insecta: Phasmatodea: “Anareolatae”: Cladomorphinae). Journal of Orthoptera Research, 19 (1), 101–113.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1665/034.019.0116Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (2012) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea XIV: revisions of the Central American genera Hypocyrtus Redtenbacher, 1908 and Rhynchacris Redtenbacher, 1908 (Phasmatodea: “Anareolatae”: Xerosomatinae: Hesperophasmatini). Journal of Orthoptera Research, 21 (1), 65–89.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1665/034.021.0106Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V. (in prep.) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea XX: Generic revision and re-arrangement of the tribe Cladomorphini Brunner v. Wattenwyl, 1893, with the descriptions of eight new genera and 38 new species. Zootaxa.
Hennemann, F.H., Conle, O.V. & Delfosse, E. (2007) Studies on Neotropical Phasmatodea VI, The genus Cranidium Westwood, 1843 (Phasmatodea, Phasmatidae, Cladomorphinae). Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France, 112 (3), 357–368.
Hottuyn (1776) Natuurkundige beschrijving der insekten etc. Natuurlijke historie. Amsterdam, Tom. X, pp. 1766–1769.
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1999) International code of zoological nomenclature. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature 1999, The Natural History Museum, London, 127 pp.
Iturralde-Vinent, M.A. & MacPhee, R.D.E. (1999) Paleogeography of the Caribbean region: implications for Cenozoic biogeography. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 238, 1–95.
Karanth, K.P. (2001) Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota. Current Science, 90 (6), 789–792.
Karny, H.H. (1923) Zur Nomenklatur der Phasmoiden. Treubia, 3, 230–242.
Kaup, J.J. (1871a) Über die Eier der Phasmiden. Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift, 15, 17–24, pl. 1.
Kaup, J.J. (1871b) Neue Phasmiden. Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift, 15, 25–42, pl. 2.
Kevan, d. K. McE. (1982) Phasmatodea (Stick-insects). In: CSIRO (Ed.), The Insects of Australia. Vol. 1, 2nd Edition, pp. 294–404.
Kirby, W.F. (1889) Descriptions of Phasmidae from Dominica, Santa Lucia and Brazil (Theresopolis), in the collection of the British Museum. Annuals and Magazine of Natural History, London, 6 (3), 501–504.
Kirby, W.F. (1904a) A Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, Vol. 1. British Museum, London.
Kirby, W.F. (1904b) Notes on Phasmidae in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, with descriptions of new species. - No. II. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, London, Series 7, 13, 429–449.
Langlois, F. & Lelong, P. (1997) Phasmatodea de Guadeloupe. ASPER publishing, Sainte Foy d’Aigrefeuille, 88 pp.
Langlois, F. & Lelong, P. (2010) Contribution à la connaissance des Phasmatodea de Dominique et de Saint-Lucie. Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France, 115 (1), 59–72.
Langlois, F., Lelong, P. & Dorel, E. (2006) Phasmatodea of Saint Lucia. ASPER publishing, Sainte Foy d’Aigrefeuille, 68 pp.
Langlois, F., Lelong, P., Rastel, D. Polidori, E. & Dorel, E. (2000) Phasmatodea de Martinique. ASPER publishing, Sainte Foy d’Aigrefeuille, France, 74 pp.
Lelong, P., Langlois, F., Rastel, D. & Dorel, E. (2003) Phasmatodea of Dominica. ASPER publishing, Sainte Foy d’Aigrefeuille, France, 103 pp.
Lelong, P. & Langlois, F. (2001) Contribution à la connaissance des Phasmatodea de la Guadeloupe. Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France, 106 (3), 241–258.
Lelong, P. & Langlois, F. (2005) Contribution à la connaissance des Phasmatodea de la Martinique. Bulletin dela Société entomologique de France, 110 (3), 259–272.
Lichtenstein, A.A.H. (1802) A dissertation on two natural genera hitherto confounded under the name of Mantis. Transactions of the Linnean Society London, 6, 1–39.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1802.tb00466.xLipinski, K., Greven, H., Schulten, D. & Löser, D. (1999) Die Struktur der Eihüllen von 48 Phasmatodea-Arten aus der Sammlung des Löbbecke-Museum und Aquazoo Düsseldorf. Entomologische Mitteilungen aus dem Löbbecke-Museum + Aquazoo, Supplement No. 5, 1–125.
Lu, W., Brock, P.D., Ivie, M. & O'Reilly, R.G. Jr. (2016) Ecology and Diversity of Stick Insects (Insecta: Phasmida) from the Virgin Islands. Phasmid Studies. [2016]
Meyerhoff, A.A. & Hatten, C.W. (1974) Bahamas salient of North America: tectonic framework, stratigraphy and petroleum potential. AAPG Bulletin, 58, 1201–1239.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-01141-6_31Morrone, J.J. (2001) Toward a cladistic model of the Caribbean: delimitation of areas of endemism. Caldasia, 23, 43–76.
Morrone, J.J. (2006) Biogeographic areas and transition zones of Latin America and the Caribbean Islands based on panbiogeographic and cladistic analyses of the entomofauna. Annual Review of Entomology, 51, 467–494.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130447Moxey, C.F. (1971) Notes on the Phasmatodea of the West Indies: two new genera. Psyche, 78, 67–83.
Moxey, C.F. (1972, in litt.) The stick-insects (Phasmatodea) of the West Indies – their systematics and biology. Department of Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 211 pp, 20 pls. [Unpublished PhD-Thesis].
Nilsson, M.A., Churakov, G., Sommer, M., Tran, N.V., Zemann, A., Brosius J. & Schmitz, J. (2010) Tracking marsupial evolution using archaic genomic retroposon insertions. PLoS Biology, 8 (7), e1000436.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000436Orvis, K.H. (2003) The highest mountain in the Caribbean: controversy and resolution via GPS. Caribbean Journal of Science, 30 (3), 378–380.
Otte, D. & Brock, P.D. (2005) Phasmid Species File. Catalog of Stick and Leaf Insects of the World. The Insect Diversity Association and the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 414 pp. [CafePress.com]
Olivier, A.G. (1792) Mante. In: Encyclopédie Méthodique. Histoire Naturelle. Insectes. Vol. 7. Panckoucke, Paris, pp. 619–643.
Rabaey, K. (2004) Diapherodes gigantea. Phasma, 14 (52/53), 10–11, figs. 1, 2 & pl. 1.
Rabaey, K. & Simoens, R. (2007) Species report n° 5: Diapherodes venustula (Audinet-Serville, 1838) een nieuwe soort in kweek afkomstig uit Cuba. Phasma, 17 (64), 6–7.
Ramos, J.A. (1946) The insects of Mona Island (West Indies). Journal of the Agricultural University of Puerto Rico, 30 (4), 1–74.
Redtenbacher, J. (1908) Die Insektenfamilie der Phasmiden. III. Phasmidae Anareolatae (Phibalosomini, Acrophyllini, Necrosciini). Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, pp. 341–589, pls. 16–27.
Rehn, J.A.G. (1901) Some necessary changes and corrections in names of Orthoptera. Canadian Entomologist, 33, 271–272.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/Ent33271-10Rehn, J.A.G. (1903) Notes on West Indian Orthoptera, with a list of the species known from the island of Porto Rico. Transactions of the American Entomological Society, 29 (2), 129–136.
Rehn, J.A.G. (1904) Studies in the orthopterous family Phasmidae. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia, 56, 38–107.
Rehn, J.A.G. & Hebard, M. (1912) On the Orthoptera found on the Florida Keys and in extreme Southern Florida. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 64, 235–276.
Rehn, J.A.G. & Hebard, M. (1914) On the Orthoptera found in the Florida Keys and in extreme southern Florida II. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 66, 373–412.
Rehn, J.A.G. & Hebard, M. (1938) New genera and species of West Indian Mantidae and Phasmidae (Orthoptera). Transactions of the American Entomological Society, 64, 33–55, pls. 3–4.
Rickfels, R. & Bermingham, E. (2007) The West Indies as a laboratory of biogeography and evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363, 2393–2413.
Saussure, H. de (1861) Orthoptera Nova Americana (Diagnoses praeliminares). Revue et Magazin de Zoologie, Series 2, 13, 126–128.
Saussure, H. de (1868) Phasmidarum novarum species nonnullae. Revue et Magasin de Zoologie, (2) 20, 63–70.
Saussure, H. de (1871–1872) Famille des phasmides. Études sur les myriapodes et les insectes. In: Edwards, M. (Ed.), Recherches Zoologiques pour servir a l’histoire de la faune de l’Amerique Centrale et du Mexique. 6 (2), pp. 133–201. [Paris]
Sellick, J.T.C. (1997) Descriptive terminology of the phasmid egg capsule, with an extended key to the phasmid genera based on egg structure. Systematic Entomology, 22, 97–122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.1997.d01-30.xSellick, J.T.C. (1998) The micropylar plate of the eggs of Phasmida, with a survey of the range of plate form within the order. Systematic Entomology, 23, 203–228.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.1998.00056.xShelford, R. (1909) Family Phasmidae. In: Biologia Centrali-Americana; or, Contributions to the knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of Mexico and Central America. Insecta, Orthoptera, II, pp. 343–377, pls. 5–8. [London]
Sherborn, C.D. & Woodward, B.B. (1899) On the dates of the ‘Encyclopédie Méthodique’: additional note. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 67, 595.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1899.tb06878.xSt. Fargeau, A.L.M., Le Peletier de & Serville, J.G.A. (1828) Bactérie. In: Latreille, P.A., Le Peletier de St. Fargeau, A.L.M., Serville, J.G.A. & Guérin-Méneville, F.É. (Eds.), Encyclopédie Méthodique, Histoire Naturelle, Entomologie, ou Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés, des Arachnides et des Insectes, 10 (2), pp. 445–446. [Agasse, Paris]
Stål, C. (1875) Recensio Orthopterorum III. Revue critique des Orthoptères déscrits par Linné, de Geer et Thunberg. P. A. Norstedt & Söner, Stockholm, 105 pp.
Stockard, C.R. (1908a) Inheritance in the “Walking Stick”, Aplopus mayeri. Biological Bulletin, 16 (5), 239–245.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1535892Stockard, C.R. (1908b) Habits, reactions, and mating instincts of the “Walking-Stick”, Aplopus mayeri. Papers from the Tortugas Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 2 (2), 43–59.
Stoll, C. (1788–1813) Représentation des Spectres ou Phasmes, des Mantes, des Sauturelles, des Grillons, des Criquets et des Blattes des quatre Parties du Monde. L’Europe, L’Asia, L’Afrique et L’Amerique; ressemblées et déscrites. Unkown publisher, Amsterdam, 56 pp., 18 pls. [This work was published in two parts, pages 1–56 and plates 1–18 in 1788, and the remainder posthumously in 1813. The first part of 1788 did not use latinized binominal names]
Toledo Piza, S. de (1938) Novo phasmidas do Brasil e da Argentina (Orth.). Revista de Entomologia, 9 (1–2), 1–11.
Van den Bussche, R.A., Willig, M.R., Chesser, R.K. & Waide, R.B. (1988) Genetic variation and systematics of four taxa of neotropical walking sticks (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 90 (4), 422–427.
Werner, F. (1929) Phasmidae (Gesammelt v. W. Kükenthal in Westindien). Zoologische Jahrbücher, Supplement 16, 4–10.
Westwood, J.O. (1843) Arcana Entomologica, or illustrations of new, rare, and interesting exotic Insects. II. William Smith, London, 2 pp. + 1 pl. [pp. 49–50, pl. 61]
Westwood, J.O. (1859) Catalogue of Orthopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum. Part 1. Phasmidae. British Museum, London, 196 pp., 40 pls.
Westwood, J.O. (1873) Thesaurus Entomologicus Oxoniensis; or, illustrations of new, rare, and interesting insects, for the most part contained in the collections presented to the University of Oxford by the Rev. F. W. Hope. Part 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 56 pp.
Wetmore, A. (1916) Birds of Porto Rico. Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture, 326, 1–140.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.64703Whiting, M.F., Bradler, S. & Maxwell, T. (2003) Loss and recovery of wings in stick insects. Nature, 421, 264–267.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature01313Wolcott, G.N. (1923) “Insectae Portoricensis.” A preliminary annotated check-list of the insects of Porto Rico, with descriptions of new species. Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Porto Rico, 8 (1), 1–313.
Wolcott, G.N. (1936) “Insectae Borinquenses.” A revised annotated check-list of the insects of Puerto Rico. Journal of the Agricultural University of Puerto Rico, 20 (1), 1–600.
Wolcott, G.N. (1941) A supplement to “Insectae borinquenses”. Journal of the Agricultural University of Puerto Rico, 25 (2), 33–158.
Wolcott, G.N. (1948) The Insects of Puerto Rico. Journal of the Agricultural University of Puerto Rico, 32 (1), 1–224.
Wolcott, G.N. (1951) Phasmidae: Walking Sticks. In: The present status of economic entomology in Puerto Rico. Bulletin of the Agricultural Experimental State University of Puerto Rico, 99, 47–50.
Woodruff, R.E. (2009) A new fossil species of stag beetle from Dominican Republic amber, with Australasian connections (Coleoptera: Lucanidae). Insecta Mundi, 0098, 1–10.
Zompro, O. (2000) Designation of type-species of 13 stick-insect genera described by J. Redtenbacher (Insecta: Orthoptera: Phasmatodea). Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums, Wien, 102B, 93–96.
Zompro, O. (2001) A generic revision of the insect order Phasmatodea: The New World genera of the stick insect subfamily Diapheromeridae: Diapheromerinae = Heteronemiidae: Heteronemiinae sensu Bradley & Galil, 1977. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 108 (1), 189–255.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.79626Zompro, O. (2002) Catalogue of type material of the insect order Phasmatodea at the Zoologisches Museum der Universität Hamburg (Insecta: Orthoptera: Phasmatodea). Mitteilungen aus dem Hamburger Zoologischen Museum und Institut, 99, 179–201.
Zompro, O. (2004) A key to the stick-insect genera of the „Areolatae“ of the New World, with description of several new taxa. Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment, 39 (2), 133–144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01650520412331333783Zompro. O. (2005a) Haplopus Burmeister, 1838, replacement name for Aplopus Gray, 1835 (Phasmatodea). Phasmid Studies, 13 (1 & 2), 30.
Zompro, O. (2005b) Catalogue of type-material of the insect order Phasmatodea, housed in the Museum für Naturkunde der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany and in the Institut für Zoologie der Martin-Luther-Universität in Halle (Saale), Germany. Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin. Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 52 (2005), 251–290.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mmnd.200410018Zompro, O & Brock, P.D. (2003) Catalogue of type-material of stick-insects housed in the Museéum d’histoire naturelle, Geneva, with descriptions of some new taxa (Insecta: Phasmatodea). Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 110 (1), 3–43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.80175