Abstract
We report herein three epibiotic associations between peritrich ciliate protozoans and polychaete worms, as observed in Tamilnadu, southeastern coast of India. Epibiont ciliates Epistylis sp.1 were found all over the integument of individuals of the terebellid polychaete Terebella sp., collected from Vellar estuary. Epistylis sp.2 ciliates were observed attached to Namalycastis abiuma polychaetes, on both sides of parapodia. Cothurnia sp. ciliates were found on anterior most paleae and hooks of Sabellaria sp. polychaetes, both latter associations from material from the Uppanar estuary. Those epibiont/basibiont associations are all new to science and discussed herein, together with a review on the previous reports of epibiont ciliate protozoans in Indian waters.
References
Álvarez-Campos, P., Fernández-Leborans, G., Verdes, A., San Martín, G., Martin, D. & Riesgo, A. (2014) The tag-along friendship: epibiotic protozoans and syllid polychaetes. Implications for the taxonomy of Syllidae (Annelida), and description of three new species of Rhabdostyla and Cothurnia (Ciliophora, Peritrichia). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 172, 265–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/zoj12168
Alves, P.R. & Santos, C.S. (2016) Description of a new species of Namalycastis (Annelida: Nereididae: Namanereidinae) from the Brazilian coast with a phylogeny of the genus. Zootaxa, 4144 (4), 499–514. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4144.4.3
Ansari, K.G.M.T. & Bhadury, P. (2017) Occurrence of epibionts associated with meiofaunal basibionts from the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, the Sundarbans. Marine Biodiversity, 47, 539–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-016-0502-5
Arias, A., Anadón, N. & Paxton, H. (2010) New records of Diopatra marocensis (Annelida: Onuphidae) from northern Spain. Zootaxa, 2691 (1), 67–68. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2691.1.5
Audouin, J.V. & Milne Edwards, H. (1832) Classification des Annélides et description de celles qui habitent les côtes de la France [Part 1]. Annales des sciences naturelles, Paris, Série 1, 27, 337–447. [https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/6062037]
Baldock, B.M. (1986) Peritrich ciliates on larvae of Brachycentrus subnubilus (Trichoptera): importance in relation to the total protozoan population in streams. Hydrobiologia, 132, 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00006775
Bandekar, P.D., Naik, U.G. & Haragi, S.B. (2017) Diversity status of benthic macro polychaetes species in estuarine region of Karwar, West Coast of India. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 5, 216–219.
Bick, A. (2001) The morphology and ecology of Dipolydora armata (Polychaeta, Spionidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea. Acta Zoologica, 82, 177–187. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1463-6395.2001.00078.X
Blainville, H.D. (1818) Mémoire sur la classe des Sétipodes, partie des Vers à sang rouge de M. Cuvier, et des Annélides de M. de Lamarck. Bulletin de la Société Philomatique de Paris, 3, 78–85.
Capa, M. & Hutchings, P. (2019) Sabellariidae Johnston, 1865. In: Purschke, G., Böggemann, M., Westheide, W. (Eds.), Handbook of Zoology, a Natural History of the Phyla of the Animal Kingdom. Annelida. Vol. 1. Annelida Basal Groups and Pleistoannelida, Sedentaria I. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston, pp. 144–163. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110291582-004
Chakravorty, M. (1937) On Paravorticella lycastis n. sp. an ectoparasitic ciliate on the parapodia of an Indian polychaete, Lycastis indica. Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 57, 71–74.
Chatterjee, T., Fernández-Leborans, G. & Chan, B.K.K. (2012) New record of ciliate Thecacineta calyx (Ciliophora: Suctorea) epibiont on Agauopsis halacarid mite (Acari, Halacaridae) from Taiwan. Scripta Scientarium Naturalium, 2, 121–127.
Chatterjee, T., Fernández-Leborans, G., Ramteke, R. & Ingole, B. (2013) New records of epibiont ciliates (Ciliophora) from Indian coast with descriptions of six new species. Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 54, 143–159. [http://drs.nio.org/drs/handle/2264/4241]
Chatterjee, T., Fernández-Leborans, G. & Schizas, N. (2014) Report of Thecacineta calyx (Ciliophora: Suctorea) as an epibiont of harpacticoid copepods from Caribbean mesophotic reefs. Caribbean Journal of Science, 48, 44–48. https://doi.org/10.18475/cjos.v48i1.a6
Clamp, J.C. (1973) Observations on the host-symbiont relationships of Lagenophrys lunatus Imamura. The Journal of Protozoology, 20, 558–561. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1973.tb03572.x
Clamp, J.C., Chatterjee, T. & Fernández-Leborans, G. (2016) Occurrence of Epistylis anastatica (Linnaeus, 1767) (Ciliophora: Peritrichia) on Mesocyclops isabellae Dussart & Fernando (Crustacea: Copepoda: Cyclopoida) in India, with an annotated checklist of species of Epistylis reported as epibionts of cyclopoid copepods and resources for their identification. Zootaxa, 4168 (3), 525–540. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4168.3.5
Corliss, J.O. (1979) The Ciliated Protozoa: Characterization, Classification and Guide to the Literature. 2nd Edition. Pergamon Press, New York, New York, 455 pp.
Dias, R.J.P., Cabral, A.F., Martins, R.T., Stephan, N.N.C., Silva Neto, I.D., Alves, R.G. & D’Agosto, M. (2009) Occurrence of peritrich ciliates on the limnic oligochaete Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri (Oligochaeta, Tubificidae) in the neotropics. Journal of Natural History, 43, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222930802478644
Dias, R.J.P., D’Avila, S. & D’Agosto, M. (2006) First record of peritrichs and suctorians (Protozoa, Ciliophora) on Pomacea lineata (Spix, 1827). Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 49, 807–812. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-89132006000600015
Doflein, F. (1901) Die Protozoen als Parasiten und Krankheitserreger nach biologischen Gesichtpunkten dargestella. G. Fischer, Jena, 274 pp.
Dons, C. (1918) Neue marine Ciliaten und Suctorien. Tromsø Museums Aarschefter, 38, 75–100.
Dons C. (1922) Notes sur quelques protozoaires marins. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturhistorisk Forening i Khobenhavn, 73, 49–84.
Dons, C. (1946) Zwei neue Cothurnien. Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskabs, 12, 119–121.
Dovgal, I.V. (1996) Keys for identification of tentaculous Infusoria (Ciliophora, Suctoria) of the Ukrainian fauna. Vestnik Zoologii, 2 (Supplement), 1–42.
Dovgal, I.V. (2002) Evolution, phylogeny and classification of Suctorea Claparède et Lachmann, 1858. Protistology, 2, 194–270.
Dovgal, I., Chatterjee, T. & Ingole, B. (2008a) An overview of suctorian ciliates (Ciliophora: Suctorea) as epibionts of halacarid mites (Acari, Halacaridae). Zootaxa, 1810 (1), 60–68. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1810.1.4
Dovgal, I., Chatterjee, T., Ingole, B. & Nanajkar, M. (2008b) First report of Limnoricus ponticus Dovgal & Lozowskiy (Ciliophora: Suctorea) as epibionts on Pycnophyes (Kinorhyncha) from the Indian Ocean with key to species of the genus Limnoricus. Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 49, 381–385. [http://drs.nio.org/drs/handle/2264/2140]
Dovgal, I., Chatterjee, T. & Ingole, B. (2009) New records of Thecacineta cothurnioides and Trematosoma rotunda (Ciliophora, Suctorea) as epibionts on nematodes from Indian Ocean. Protistology, 6, 19–23. [http://drs.nio.org/drs/handle/2264/3424]
Durborow, R.M. (2003) Protozoan parasites. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center Publication 4701. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, Stoneville, Mississippi, 8 pp.
Ehrenberg, C.G. (1830) Beiträge Zur Kenntniss Der Organisation Der Infusorien Und Ihrer Geographischen Verbreitung, Besonders in Sibirien. Abh Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin, Jahr, 88 pp.
Ehrenberg, C.G. (1831) Ober die Entwickelung und Lebensdauer der Infusionsthiere; nebst femeren Beitragen zu einer Vergleichung ihrer organischen Systeme. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin, Jahr, 154 pp.
Fauvel, P. (1953) The fauna of India including Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma and Malaya. Vol. 12. Annelida Polychaeta. Indian Press, Allahabad, 507 pp.
Fenchel, T. (1987) Ecology of Protozoa. The biology of free-living phagotrophic protists. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 52 pp. [Brock/Springer Series in Contemporary Bioscience, Science Technical Publishers]
Fernández-Leborans, G. (2010) Epibiosis in Crustacea: an overview. Crustaceana, 83, 549–640. https://doi.org/10.1163/001121610X491059.
Fernández-Leborans, G., Chatterjee, T. & Grego, M. (2012) New records of epibiont ciliates (Ciliophora) on Harpacticoida (Copepoda, Crustacea) from the Bay of Piran (Gulf of Trieste, Northern Adriatic). Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 53, 53–63.
Fernandez-Leborans, G. & Tato-Porto, M.L. (2000a) A review of the species of protozoan epibionts on crustaceans. I. Peritrich ciliates. Crustaceana, 73, 643–684. https://doi.org/10.1163/156854001300228852
Fernández-Leborans, G. & Tato-Porto, M.L. (2000b) A review of the species of protozoan epibionts on crustaceans. II. Suctorian ciliates. Crustaceana, 73, 1205–1237. https://doi.org/10.1163/156854000505209
Fernando, O.J. & Rajasekaran, R. (2007) A new species of Namanereidinae: Namalycastis glasbyi sp. nov. from Indian waters. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104, 64–67. [https://biostororg/reference/150998]
Foissner, W. (1999) Identification and ecology of limnetic plankton ciliates. Informationsberichte des Bayerischen Landesamtes fur Wasserwirtschaft, 3, 1–793.
Foissner, W., Berger, H. & Kohmann, F. (1992) Taxonomische und ökologische. Revision der Ciliaten des Saprobiensystems. Band II: Peritrichida, Heterotrichida, Odontostomatida. Infor-mationsberichte des Bayerischen Landesamtes für Wasserwirtschaft München, 5, 1–502.
Fromentel, E. (1874–1876) Etudes sur les microzoaires, ou infusoires proprement dits: comprenant de nouvelles recherches sur leur organisation, leur classification et la description des espèces nouvelles ou peu connues. G. Masson, Paris, 364 pp.
Ganapati, P.N. (1946) Notes on some gregarines from polychaetes of the Madras coast. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B, 23, 228–248.
Gilbert, J.J. & Schröder, T. (2003) The ciliate epibiont Epistylis pygmaeum: selection for zooplankton hosts, reproduction and effect on two rotifers. Freshwater Biology, 48, 878–893. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2427.2003.01059.x
Görtz, H.D. (1996) Symbiosis in ciliates. In: Hausmann, K. & Bradbury, P.C. (Eds.), Ciliates: cells as organisms. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, pp. 441– 462.
Green, J.D. & Shiel, R.J. (2000) Mobiline peritrich riders on Australian calanoid copepods. Hydrobiologia, 437, 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026567210125
Hartman O. (1959) Capitellidae and Nereidae (marine annelids) from the Gulf side of Florida, with a review of freshwater Nereidae. Bulletin of Marine Science, 9, 153–168.
Hartmann-Schröder, G. (1986) Teil 12. Die Polychaeten der antiborealen Südküste Australiens (zwischen Wallaroo im Westen und Port MacDonnell im Osten). Mitteilungen aus dem Hamburgischen zoologischen Museum und Institut, 83, 31–70.
Hutchings, P., Nogueira, J.M.M. & Carrerette, O. (2021) Terebellidae Johnston, 1846. In: Schmidt-Rhaesa, A., Beutel, R.G., Glaubrecht, M., Kristensen, N.P., Prendini, L., Purschke, G., Richter, S., Westheide, W. & Leschen, R.Z.E. (Eds.), Handbook of Zoology. A Natural History of the Phyla of the Animal Kingdom. Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin, pp. 68–144. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110291704.
Ivanova, E., Dovgal, I.V. & Newton, A. (2017) First records of epibiont ciliates (Ciliophora) in methane enriched sediments with species redescriptions. Ecologica Montenegrina, 10, 51–57. https://doi.org/10.37828/em.2017.10.8
Jankowski, A.V. (1981) New species, genera and families of tentacle Infusoria (class Suctoria). Proceedings of the Zoological Institute, 107, 80–115.
Jankowski, A.V. (2007) Review of taxa Phylum Ciliophora Doflein, 1901. In: Alimov, A.F. (Ed.), Protista. Handbook of Zoology. Pt. 2. Nauka, St. Petersburg, pp. 415–993.
Jankowski, A.W. (2014) Cothurnia polydorica sp. nov. (Ciliophora: Peritrichia), a symbiont of shell-boring spionid polychaetes in the Sea of Japan, and a review of ciliates associated with polydorids. Zoosistematica Rossica, 23, 167–173. https://doi.org/10.31610/zsr/2014.23.2.167
Jayakumar, R. & Ramasamy, P. (1999) Bacterial and protozoan (ciliate) diseases of prawn Penaeus indicus (Decapoda: Crustacea). Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences, 28, 285–296.
Jayasree, SrL., Janakiram, P. & Madhavi, R. (2001) Epibionts and parasites of Macrobrachium rosenbergii and Metapenaeus dobsoni from Gosthani estuary. Journal of Natural History, 35 (2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222930150215297
Johnston, G. (1833) Illustrations in British zoology. 15. Plumularia catharina. Magazine of Natural History, 6, 497–499.
Johnston, G. (1846) An index to the British Annelides. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 1, 16 (108), 433–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/037454809495980
Johnston, G., (1865) A catalogue of the British non-parasitical worms in the collection of the British Museum. Printed by order of the Trustees, London, 365 pp.
Kahl, A. (1933) Ciliata libera et ectocommensalia. In: Grimpe, G. & Wagler, E. (Eds.), Die Tierwelt der Nord-und Ostsee. Lief. 23 (Teil II-C-3). Geest & Portig, Leipzig, pp. 29–146.
Kahl, A. (1935) Urtiere oder Protozoa I: Wimpertiere oder Ciliata (Infusoria), eine Bearbeitung der freilebenden und ectocommensalen Infusorien der Erde, unter Ausschluß der marinen Tintinnidae, 4. Peritricha und Chonotricha. In: Dahl, F. (Ed.), Die Tierwelt deutschlands und der angrenzenden Meeresteile nach ihren Merkmalen und nach ihrer Lebensweise, 30. Gustav Fischer, Jena, pp. 651–886.
Kellicott, D.S. (1883) On some Infusoria found on the crayfish. Proceedings of the American Society of Microscopists, 5, 105–111.
Lamarck, J.B. (1802) Discours d’Ouverture, Prononcé le 27 floréal An 10, au Muséum d’Histoire naturelle. Recherches sur l’organisation des corps vivans. Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique, Series 5, 40, 483–517. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10730977]
Lamarck, J.B. (1818) Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans Vertèbres, préséntant les caractères généraux et particuliers de ces animaux, leur distribution, leurs classes, leurs familles, leurs genres, et la citation des principales espèces qui s’y rapportent; precedes d’une Introduction offrant la determination des caracteres essentiels de I’Animal, sa distinction du vegetal et desautres corps naturels, enfin, I’Exposition des Principes fondamentaux de la Zoologie. Vol. 5. Deterville, Paris, 612 pp.
Lang, K. (1948) On Rhabdostyla commensalis Möbius and two new Cothurnia species (Ciliata, Peritrichia) from the west coast of Sweden. Arkiv för Zoologi, 41B, 1–6.
Langerhans, P. (1880) Die Wurmfauna von Madeira. III. Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 34, 87–143.
Levander, K.M. (1915) Über eine neue marine Cothurnia-Art. Meddelanden et Societas Profauna et Flora Fennica, 10, 86–88.
Levinsen, G.M.R. (1883) Systematisk-geografisk Oversigt over de nordiske Annulata, Gephyrea, Chaetognathi og Balanoglossi. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturhistorisk Forening i Köbenhavn, 1882, 160–251. [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34979059]
Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Tomus I. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 828 pp.
Linnaeus, C. (1767) Systema Naturea. Editio duodecima, reformata. Tomus I. Pars II. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 829 pp.
Lynn, D.H. (2008) The ciliated Protozoa: characterization, classification, and guide to the literature. Springer, Dordrecht, 605 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8239-9
Lynn, D.H. & Small, E.B. (2000) Ciliophora. In: Lee, J.J., Leedale, G.F. & Bradbury, P. (Eds.), The illustrated guide to the protozoa. 2nd Edition. Society of Protozoologists, Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, pp. 1–689.
Lynn, D.H. & Small, E.B. (2002) Phylum Ciliophora Doflein, 1901. In: Lee, J.J., Leedale, G.F. & Bradbury, P. (Eds.), An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa. Organisms Traditionally Referred to as Protozoa, or Newly Discovered Groups. 2nd Edition. Society of Protozoologists, Lawrence, pp. 371–656.
Ma, H. & Overstreet, R.M. (2006) Two new species of Epistylis (Ciliophora: Peritrichida) on the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) in the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 53, 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00080.x
Magesh, M., Kvist, S. & Glasby, C.J. (2012) Description and phylogeny of Namalycastis jaya sp. n. (Polychaeta, Nereididae, Namanereidinae) from the southwest coast of India. ZooKeys, 238, 31–43. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.238.4014
Magesh, M., Kvist, S. & Glasby, C.J. (2014) Incipient speciation within the Namalycastis abiuma (Annelida: Nereididae) species group from southern India revealed by combined morphological and molecular data. Memoirs of Museum Victoria, 71, 169–176. https://doi.org/10.24199/j.mmv.2014.71.14
Malmgren, A.J. (1865) Nordiska Hafs-Annulater [part one of three]. Öfversigt af Königlich Vetenskapsakademiens förhandlingar, Stockholm. 22 (1), 51–110. [https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32339323]
Mayén-Estrada, R. & Aladro-Lubel, M.A. (2001) Epibiont peritrichids (Ciliophora: Peritrichida: Epi-stylididae) on the crayfish Cambarellus patzcuarensis in Lake Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 21, 426–434. https://doi.org/10.1163/20021975-99990143
McIntosh, W.C. (1874) On the Annelida of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 4, 13 (76), Part 34), 261–270. [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/24342649]
Mikac, B., Semprucci, F., Guidi, L., Ponti, M., Abbiati, M., Balsamo, M. & Dovgal, I. (2020) Newly discovered associations between peritrich ciliates (Ciliophora: Peritrichia) and scale polychaetes (Annelida: Polynoidae and Sigalionidae) with a review of polychaete peritrich epibiosis. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 188, 939–953. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz111
Moss, A.G., Estes, A.M., Muellner, L.A. & Morgan, D.D. (2001) Protistian epibionts of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis mccradyi Mayer. Hydrobiologia, 451, 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0722-1_24
Müller, O.F. (1776) Zoologiae Danicae prodromus: seu Animalium Daniae et Norvegiae indigenarum characteres, nomina, et synonyma imprimis popularium. typis Hallageriis, 274 pp.
Murugesan, P., Sarathy, P.P., Muthuvelu, S. & Mahadevan, G. (2018) Diversity and distribution of polychaetes in mangroves of east coast of India. Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function. IntechOpen, pp. 107–130. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332
Nageswara Rao, C.A. (1981) On two new polychaets (Nereidae Annelida) from estuarine waters of India. Bulletin, of the Zoological Survey of India, 3, 213–217.
Ørsted, A.S. (1844) De regionibus marinis: elementa topographiae historiconaturalis freti Öresund. J.C. Scharling, Hauniae, 88 pp.
Pane, L., Bonello, G. & Mariottini, G.L. (2014) Epibiotic ciliates Scyphidia sp. and diatoms on Tigriopus fulvus (Copepoda: Harpacticoida) exoskeleton. Journal of Biological Research, 87, 66–69. https://doi.org/10.4081/jbr.2014.4600
Parapar, J., Kongsrud, J.A., Kongshavn, K., Alvestad, T., Aneiros, F. & Moreira, J. (2018) A new species of Ampharete (Annelida: Ampharetidae) from the NW Iberian Peninsula, with a synoptic table comparing NE Atlantic species of the genus. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 183, 526–555. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx077/4757478
Paxton, H., Fadlaoui, S. & Lechapt, J.P. (1995) Diopatra marocensis, a new brooding species of Onuphidae (Annelida: Polychaeta). Journal of Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 75, 949–955. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315400038273
Pratt, J.R. & Cairns Jr., J.O.H.N. (1985) Functional groups in the Protozoa: roles in differing ecosystems. Journal of Protozoology, 32, 415–423.
Precht, H. (1935) Epizoen der Kieler Bucht. Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Nova Acta Leopoldiana, Halle, Neue Folge, 3, 405–474.
Rajabunizal, K. & Ramanibai, R. (2011) Presence of an epibiont Epistylis niagarae (Protozoa, Ciliophora) on Mesocyclops aspericornis in Velachery lake, Chennai, India. Journal of Biological Sciences, 11, 189–195. https://doi.org/10.3923/jbs.2011.189.195
Rengaiyan, P. & Ingole, B. (2018) 18S rDNA sequencing data of benthic polychaetes from the Eastern Arabian Sea. Data in brief, 20, 1749–1752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2018.09.015
Rengaiyan, P. & Ingole, B. (2019) Genetic variation of reef-building polychaete Sabellaria chandraae in the south-eastern Arabian Sea based on mitochondrial COI gene sequences. Mitochondrial DNA Part B, 4, 3291–3292. https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1673223
Santhakumari, V. (1976) Seasonal incidence and relative abundance of associated organisms of the wood boring isopods Sphaeroma terebrans and S. annandalei. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India, 18, 91–98.
Santhakumari, V. (1997) Studies on the associates parasites of zooplankton from southwest and southeast coasts of India. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India, 39, 171–174.
Sars, M. (1835) Beskrivelser og iagttagelser over nogle mærkelige eller nye i havet ved den bergenske kyst levende dyr af polypernes, acalephernes, radiaternes, annelidernes, og molluskernes classer: med en kort oversigt over de hidtil af forfatteren sammesteds fundne arter og deres forekommen. Thorstein Hallager, Bergen, 81 pp.
Sekar, V., Rajasekaran, R., Sachithanandam, V., Sankar, R., Sridhar, R. & Kingsley, P.W. (2016) Species diversity of Polychaete in coral reef ecosystem of Great Nicobar Island, India. Nusantara Bioscience, 8, 71–76. https://doi.org/10.13057/nusbiosci/n080113
Sen, K. & Mandal, R. (2018) Fresh-water fish diseases in West Bengal, India. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 6, 356–362.
Southern, R. (1921) Fauna of the Chilka Lake and also of fresh and brackish waters in other parts of India. Memoirs of the Indian Museum Calcutta, 5, 563–659.
Srikrishnadhas, B., Ramamoorthi, K. & Balasubrahmanyan, K. (1987) Polychaetes of Porto Novo waters. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India, 29, 134–139.
Stein, F. (1859) Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere nach eigenen Forschungen in systematischer Reihenfolge bearbeitet. II. W. Engelmann, Leipzig, 206 pp.
Vicente, F., Michalczyk, L., Kaczmarek, L. & Boavida, M.J. (2008) Observations on Pyxidium tardigradum (Ciliophora) a protozoan living on Eutardigrada: infestation, morphology and feeding behaviour. Parasitology Research, 103, 1323–1331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-008-1136-8
Vijayalakshmi, S., Murugesan, P., Muthuvelu, S. & Balasubramanian, T. (2016) Occurrence of epibionts in coastal waters of Tamilnadu. Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences, 45, 920–925.
Wahl, M. (1989) Marine epibiosis. I. Fouling and antifouling - some basic aspects. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 58, 175–189.
Wahl, M. (2008) Ecological lever and interface ecology: epibiosis modulates the interactions between host and environment. Biofouling, 24 (6), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/089-27010 802339772
Wahl, M. (2009) Epibiosis: ecology, effects and defenses. In: Wahl, M. (Ed.), Marine hard bottom communities. Patterns, dynamics, diversity, and change. Ecological Studies 206. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 61–72. https://doi.org/org/10.1007/b76710
Warren, A. & Paynter, J. (1991) A revision of Cothurnia (Ciliophora: Peritrichida) and its morphological relatives. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology, 57, 17–59.
Xu, K., Agatha, S. & Dolan, J. (2021 online) World Ciliophora Database. Paravorticella terebellae (Fauré-Fremiet, 1920).
Xu, Z. & Burns, C.W. (1991) Effects of the epizoic ciliate, Epistylis daphniae, on growth, reproduction and mortality of Boeckeila triarticulata (Thomson) (Copepoda: Calanoida). Hydrobiologia, 209, 183–189.