Abstract
Amazonian lowland rainforests epitomize, as few other biomes, the terrestrial and freshwater biological diversity of our planet. We provide here a comprehensive description of the larval anurans of Central Amazonia, and their natural history. We base our analyses on fieldwork conducted in six terra-firme rainforest and two várzea floodplain sites during ~60 months between 1990 and 2013, complemented with an examination of museum specimens and a review of published literature. Ninety-nine species of anurans are known to occur in Central Amazonia. Of these, 84 species (85%) have a free-swimming exotrophic larva, six species (6%) have a terrestrial endotrophic larva, one species has a terrestrial exotrophic larva (1%) and another seven species (7%) have direct development of eggs into froglets. The life cycle of one species (1%) remains unknown. We formally describe and illustrate the larval stage of 68 species (i.e., 75% of the species with a known larval stage), five of them previously unkown and nineteen never described for Central Amazonia. We compile, review and update information on species natural history including reproductive modes, habitat use, phenology, and species interactions including diet, predators, competitors and parasites. Finally, we assessed the ecomorphological diversity in the region by the application of a system inspired in Altig & Johnston (1989), later updated by Altig & McDiarmid (1999), which recognizes tadpole guilds based on a combination of morphological and natural history data. Basic scientific information presented in this monograph provide the essential background for further studies on the ecological and evolutionary forces shaping anuran Amazonian assemblages, and their conservation.
References
Aichinger, M. (1987) Annual activity patterns of anurans in a seasonal neotropical environment. Oecologia, 71, 583–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00379302
Aichinger, M. (1992) Fecundity and breeding sites of an anuran community in a seasonal tropical environment. Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment, 27, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650529209360863
Almeida, A.P., Rodrigues, D.J., Garey, M.V. & Menin, M. (2015) Tadpole richness in riparian areas is determined by niche-based and neutral processes. Hydrobiologia, 745, 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-014-2099-7
Altig, R. & Johnston, G.F. (1989) Guilds of anuran larvae: relationships among developmental modes, morphologies, and habitats. Herpetological Monographs, 3, 81–109. https://doi.org/10.2307/1466987
Altig, R. & McDiarmid, R.W. (1999) Body plan - development and morphology. In: McDiarmid, R.W. & Altig, R. (Eds.), Tadpoles: The Biology of Anuran Larvae. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 24–51.
Antonelli, A., Quijada-Mascareñas, A., Crawford, A.J., Bates, J.M., Velazco, P.M. & Wüster, W. (2010) Molecular studies and phylogeography of Amazonian tetrapods and their relation to geological and climatic models. In: Hoorn, C. & Wesselingh, F.P. (Eds.), Amazonia, Landscape and Species Evolution: A Look into the Past, Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, New Jersey, pp. 383–404. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444306408.ch24
Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Hoogmoed, M.S. & Rocha, W.A. (2010) Notes on the Vertebrates of northern Pará, Brazil: a forgotten part of the Guianan Region, I. Herpetofauna. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, 5, 13–112. https://doi.org/10.46357/bcnaturais.v5i1.647
Azevedo-Ramos, C. (2004) Dendropsophus minimus. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2004, e.T55563A11331977.
Azevedo-Ramos, C. & Rodrigues, M.T. (2004) Phyzelaphryne miriamae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004, e.T57280A11598104.
Azevedo-Ramos, C., Van Sluys, M., Hero, J.-M. & Magnusson, W.E. (1992) Influence of tadpole movement on predation by odonate nayads. Journal of Herpetology, 26, 335–338. https://doi.org/10.2307/1564891
Azevedo-Ramos, C., Magnusson, W.E. & Bayliss, E.P. (1999) Predation as the key factor in tadpole community structure in a savanna area in Central Amazonia. Copeia, 1999, 22–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/1447381
Azevedo-Ramos, C., Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M. & Gascon, C. (2004) Hydrolaetare schmidti. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2004, e.T57084A11567229.
Badgley, C. (2010) Tectonics, topography, and mammalian diversity. Ecography, 33, 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06282.x
Becker, C.G., Fonseca, C.R., Haddad, C.F.B., Batista, R.F. & Prado, P.I. (2007) Habitat split and the global decline of amphibians. Science, 318, 1775–1777. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1149374
Bokermann, W.C.A. (1963) Girinos de Anfíbios Brasileiros—I (Amphibia - Salientia). Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 35, 465−474.
Bokermann, W.C.A. (1967) Girinos de Anfíbios Brasileiros—3: sôbre um girino gigante de “Pseudis paradoxa” (Amphibia, Pseudidae). Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 24, 209−212.
Böning, P., Wolf, S., Upton, K.; Menin, M., Venegas, P.J. & Lötters, S. (2017) Amphibian diversity and its turnover in floating meadows along the Amazon river. Salamandra, 53, 379–388.
Branch, L.C. (1983) Social behavior of the tadpoles of Phyllomedusa vaillanti. Copeia, 1983, 420–428. https://doi.org/10.2307/1444385
Buchacher, C.O. (1993) Field studies on the small Surinam toad, Pipa arrabali, near Manaus, Brazil. Amphibia-Reptilia, 14, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853893X00192
Caldwell, J.P. (1989) Structure and behavior of Hyla geographica tadpole schools, with comments on classification of group behavior in tadpoles. Copeia, 1989, 938–950. https://doi.org/10.2307/1445980
Caldwell, J.P. & Araújo, M.C. (2005) Amphibian faunas of two eastern Amazonian rainforest sites in Pará, Brazil. Occasional papers of the Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, 16, 1–41.
Caldwell, J.P. & Lima, A.P. (2003) A new Amazonian species of Colostethus (Anura: Dendrobatidae) with a nidicolous tadpole. Herpetologica, 59, 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1655/0018-0831(2003)059[0219:ANASOC]2.0.CO;2
Caldwell, J.P., Lima, A.P. & Biavati, G.M. (2002) Descriptions of tadpoles of Colostethus marchesianus and Colostethus caeruleodactylus (Anura: Dendrobatidae) from their type localities. Copeia, 2002, 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1643/0045-8511(2002)002[0166:DOTOCM]2.0.CO;2
Caramaschi, U. & Jim, J. (1983) Observações sobre hábitos e desenvolvimento dos girinos de Phyllomedusa vaillanti Boulenger, 1882 (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae). Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 43, 261–268.
Carminer, M.A., Mila, B., Jansen, M., Fouquet, A., Venegas, P.J., Chàvez, G., Lougheed, S. & Ron, S.R. (2017) Systematics of the Dendropsophus leucophyllatus species complex (Anura: Hylidae): cryptic diversity and the description of two new species. Plos One, 12, 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176902
Carvalho, V.T., Fraga, R., Silva, A.L.F. & Vogt, R.C. (2013) Introduction of Leptodactylus labyrinthicus (Spix, 1824) (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in central Amazonia, Brazil. Check List, 9, 849–850. https://doi.org/10.15560/9.4.849
Cei, J.M. (1980) Amphibians of Argentina. Monitore Zoológico Italiano, N.S., Monografia, 2, 1–609.
Condrati, L.H. (2009) Padrões de distribuição e abundância de anuros em áreas ripárias e não ripárias de floresta de terra firme na Reserva Biológica do Uatumã—Amazônia Central. Master Dissertation, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, 52 pp.
Costa-Campos, C.E. (2015) Ecologia de comunidades e comportamento reprodutivo de anfíbios anuros em savana amazônica. PhD Thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, 148 pp.
Crombie, R.I. & Heyer, W.R. (1983) Leptodactylus longirostris (Anura: Leptodactylidae): Advertisement call, tadpole, ecological and distributional notes. Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 43, 291–296.
Crump, M.L. (1971) Quantitative analysis of the ecological distribution of a tropical herpetofauna. Occasional Paper of Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas, 3, 1–62.
Crump, M.L. (1974) Reproductive strategies in a tropical anuran community. Miscellaneous Publications Museum of Natural History University of Kansas, 61, 1–68.
de Sá, R.O. (1996) Hyla multifasciata. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 624, 1–4.
de Sá, R.O., Wassersug, R. & Kehr, A.I. (1997) Description of tadpoles of three species of Scinax (Anura: Hylidae). Herpetological Journal, 7, 13–17.
d’Heursel, A. & de Sá, R.O. (1999) Comparing the tadpoles of Hyla geographica and Hyla semilineata. Journal of Herpetology, 33, 353–361. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565631
d’Heursel, A. & Haddad, C.F.B. (2007) Anatomy of the oral cavity of Hylid larvae from the genera Aplastodicus, Bokermannohyla, and Hypsiboas (Amphibia, Anura): description and systematic implications. Journal of Herpetology, 41, 458–468. https://doi.org/10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[458:AOTOCO]2.0.CO;2
Dias-Souza, M.R., Costa-Campos, C.E. & Menin, M. (2019) The tadpole of Elachistocleis helianneae Caramaschi, 2010 (Anura: Microhylidae). Zootaxa, 4701 (6), 594–600. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4701.6.10
Dixon, J.R. & Staton, M.A. (1976) Some aspects of the biology of Leptodactylus macrosternum Miranda-Ribeiro (Anura: Leptodactylidae) of the Venezuelan Llanos. Herpetologica, 32, 227–232.
Dubeux, M.J.M., Nascimento, F.A.C., Lima, L.R., Magalhães, F.M., Silva, I.R.S., Gonçalves, U., Almeida, J.P.F. A., Correia, L.L., Garda, A.A., Mesquita, D.O., Rossa-Feres, D.C. & Mott, T. 2020 Morphological characterization and taxonomic key of tadpoles (Amphibia: Anura) from the northern region of the Atlantic Forest. Biota Neotropica, 20 (2), e20180718), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1590/1676-0611-bn-2018-0718
Duellman, W.E. (1970) The hylid frogs of Middle America. Monograph of the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas, 1, l–753. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.2835
Duellman, W.E. (1972) South American frogs of the Hyla rostrata group (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae). Zoologische Mededelingen, 47, 177–192.
Duellman, W.E. (1978) The biology of an Equatorial herpetofauna of Amazonian Ecuador. Miscellaneous Publications Museum of Natural History University of Kansas, 65, 1–352.
Duellman, W.E. (1989) Tropical Herpetofaunal Communities: Patterns of Community Structure in Neotropical Rainforests. In: Harmelin-Vivien, M.L. & Bourlière, F. (Eds.), Vertebrates in complex tropical systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, pp. 61–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3510-1_3
Duellman, W.E. (1997) Amphibians of La Escalera Region, southeastern Venezuela: Taxonomy, Ecology, and Biogeography. Scientific Papers, 2, 1–52. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.16166
Duellman, W.E. (2005) Cusco Amazónico—the lives of amphibians and reptiles in an Amazonian rainforest. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 433 pp.
Duellman, W.E. & Crump, M.L. (1974) Speciation in frogs of the Hyla parviceps group in the upper Amazon basin. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas, 23, 1–40.
Duellman, W.E. & Lescure, J. (1973) Life history and ecology of the hylid frog Osteocephalus taurinus, with observations on larval behavior. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas, 13, 1–12.
Duellman, W.E. & Lizana, M. (1994) Biology of a sit-and-wait predator, leptodactylid frog Ceratophrys cornuta. Herpetologica, 50, 51–64.
Duellman, W.E. & Lynch, J.D. (1969) Descriptions of Atelopus tadpoles and their relevance to atelopodid classification. Herpetologica, 25, 233–240.
Duellman, W.E. & Trueb, L. (1986) Biology of Amphibians. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 670 pp.
Faivovich, J. (2002) A cladistic analysis of Scinax (Anura: Hylidae). Cladistics, 18, 367–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2002.tb00157.x
Faivovich, J., Haddad, C.F.B., Garcia, P.C.A., Frost, D.R., Campbell, J.A. & Wheeler, W.C. (2005) Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 294, 1–240. https://doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090(2005)294[0001:SROTFF]2.0.CO;2
Faria da Costa, N.M., Rojas-Ahumada, D.P., Da Silveira, R. & Menin, M. (2013) Notes on abundance, size and calling activity of the South American bullfrog, Leptodactylus pentadactylus (Anura, Leptodactylidae), in pristine and fragmented forests in Central Amazonia, Brazil. Herpetology Notes, 6, 317–322.
Ferrão, M., de Fraga, R., Simões, P.I. & Lima, A.P. (2014) On the poorly sampled Amazonian genus Hydrolaetare (Anura: Leptodactylidae): geographic ranges and species identification. Salamandra, 50, 77–84.
Ford, P.L. & Scott Jr., N.J. (1996) Descriptions of Bufo tadpoles from the Southwestern Coast of Jalisco, México. Journal of Herpetology, 30, 253–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565517
Frost, D.R. (2020) Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.1. 15 July 2000. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Electronic Database accessible. Available from: https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/index.php (accessed 24 August 2020)
Gascon, C. (1989a) The tadpole of Atelopus pulcher Boulenger (Anura, Bufonidae). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 6, 235–239. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-81751989000200007
Gascon, C. (1989b) Predator-prey size interaction in tropical ponds. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 6, 701–706. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-81751989000400016
Gascon, C. (1991) Population- and community-level analyses of species occurrences of Central Amazonian rainforest tadpoles. Ecology, 72, 1731–1746. https://doi.org/10.2307/1940972
Gascon, C. (1992a) Aquatic predators and tadpole prey in central Amazonia: field data and experimental manipulations. Ecology, 73, 971–980. https://doi.org/10.2307/1940173
Gascon, C. (1992b) Spatial distribution of Osteocephalus taurinus and Pipa arrabali in a Central Amazonian forest. Copeia, 1992, 894–897. https://doi.org/10.2307/1446169
Gascon, C. (1995) Tropical larval anuran fitness in the absence of direct effects of predation and competition. Ecology, 76, 2222–2229. https://doi.org/10.2307/1941695
Gomes, M.R. & Peixoto, O.L. (1991) Larvas de Hyla do grupo leucophyllata com a descrição da de Hyla elegans Wied, 1824 e notas sobre a variação do colorido no adulto desta espécie (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae). Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 51, 257–262.
Gordo, M., Toledo, L.F., Suárez, P., Kawashita-Ribeiro, R.A., Ávila, R.W., Morais, D.H. & Nunes, I. (2013) A new species of milk frog of the genus Trachycephalus Tschudi (Anura, Hylidae) from the Amazonian Rainforest. Herpetologica, 69, 466–479. https://doi.org/10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-11-00086
Gosner, K.L. (1960) A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae, with notes on identification. Herpetologica, 16, 183–190.
Grillitsch, B. (1992) Notes on the tadpole of Phrynohyas resinifictrix (Goeldi, 1907). Buccopharyngeal and external morphology of a tree hole dwelling larva (Anura: Hylidae). Herpetozoa, 5, 51–66.
Guillaumet, J.-L. & Kahn, F. (1982) Structure et dynamisme de la forêt. Acta Amazonica, 12, 61–77. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-43921982123S061
Haddad, C.F.B. & Martins, M. (1994) Four species of Brazilian poison frogs related to Epipedobates pictus (Dendrobatidae): taxonomy and natural history observations. Herpetologica, 50, 282–295.
Haddad, C.F.B. & Prado, C.P.A. (2005) Reproductive modes in frogs and their unexpected diversity in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. BioScience, 55, 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0207:RMIFAT]2.0.CO;2
Hero, J-M. (1990) An illustrated key to tadpoles occurring in the Central Amazon rainforest, Manaus, Amazonas, Brasil. Amazoniana, 11, 201–262.
Hero, J-M. (1991) Predation, palatability and the distribution of tadpoles in the Amazon Rainforest. PhD Thesis, Griffith University, Brisbane, 234 pp.
Hero, J-M. & Galatti, U. (1990) Characteristics distinguishing Leptodactylus pentadactylus and L. knudseni in the Central Amazon Rainforest. Journal of Herpetology, 24, 226–228. https://doi.org/10.2307/1564240
Hero, J-M., Gascon, C. & Magnusson, W.E. (1998) Direct and indirect effects of predation on tadpole community structure on Amazon rainforest. Australian Journal of Ecology, 23, 474–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1998.tb00755.x
Heyer, W.R. (1973) Ecological interactions of frog larvae at a seasonal tropical location in Thailand. Journal of Herpetology, 7, 337–361. https://doi.org/10.2307/1562868
Heyer, W.R. (1978) Systematics of the fuscus group of the frog genus Leptodactylus (Amphibia, Leptodactylidae). Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Science Bulletin, 29, 1–85.
Heyer, W.R. (1994) Variation within the Leptodactylus podicipinus-wagneri complex of frogs (Amphibia: Leptodactylidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 546, 1–124. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00810282.546.i
Heyer, W.R. & Silverstone, P.A. (1969) The larva of the frog Leptodactylus hylaedactylus (Leptodactylidae). Fieldiana-Zoology, 51, 141–145. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.3047
Heyer, W.R. & Heyer, M.M. (2006) Leptodactylus knudseni Heyer. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 807, 1–12.
Heyer, W.R., Rand, A.S., Cruz, C.A.G. da, Peixoto, O.L. & Nelson, C.E. (1990) Frogs of Boracéia. Arquivos de Zoologia, 31, 231–410.
Hödl, W. (1977) Call differences and calling site segregation in anuran species from Central Amazonian floating meadows. Oecologia, 28, 351–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00345990
Hödl, W. (1990) Reproductive diversity in Amazonian lowland frogs. Fortschritte der Zoologie, 38, 41–60.
Hödl, W. (1993) Amazonien aus der Froschperspektive. In: Aubrecht, G., Brands, M., Gusenleitner, F., Speta, F. & Weigl, S. (Eds.), Amerika—Zur Entdeckung—Kulturpflanzen—Lebensraum Regenwald. Kataloge des OÖ Landesmuseums, 61, pp. 499–545.
Hoff, K.vS. & Wassersug, R.J. (2000) Tadpole locomotion: axial movement and tail functions in a largely vertebraeless vertebrate. American Zoologist, 40, 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/40.1.62
Holt, R.D. (2009) Predation and community organization. In: Levin, S.A. (Ed.), The Princeton Guide to Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, pp. 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400833023.274
Hoogmoed (1979) Resurrection of Hyla ornatissima Noble (Amphibia, Hylidae) and remarks on related species of green tree frogs from the Guiana area. Notes on the herpetofauna of Surinam VI. Zoologische Verhandelingen, 172, 1–46.
Hoorn, C., Wesselingh, F.P., Steege, H. ter, Bermudez, M.A., Mora, A., Sevink, J., Sanmartín, I., Sanchez-Meseguer, A., Anderson, C.L., Figueiredo, J.P., Jaramillo, C., Riff, D., Negri, F.R., Hooghiemstra, H., Lundberg, J., Stadler, T., Särkinen, T. & Antonelli, A. (2010) Amazonia through time: Andean uplift, climate change, landscape evolution, and biodiversity. Science, 330, 927–931. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1194585
Hubbell, S.P. (2001) The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 390 pp.
Inger, R.F., Voris, H.K. & Frogner, K.J. (1986). Organization of a community of tadpoles in rainforest streams in Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 2, 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467400000808
Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (2015) Dados meteorológicos. Available from: https://portal.inmet.gov.br/ (accessed 1 August 2015)
Jordani, M.X., Melo, L.S., Queiroz, C.S., Rossa-Feres, D.C. & Garey, M.V. (2017) Tadpole community structure in lentic and lotic habitats: richness and diversity in the Atlantic Rainforest lowland. Herpetological Journal, 27, 299–306.
Juncá, F.A. (1996) Parental care and egg mortality in Colostethus stepheni. Journal of Herpetology, 30, 292−294. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565530
Juncá, F.A. (1998) Reproductive biology of Colostethus stepheni and Colostethus marchesianus (Dendrobatidae), with the description of a new anuran mating behaviour. Herpetologica, 54, 377–387.
Juncá, F.A., Altig, R. & Gascon, C. (1994) Breeding biology of Colostethus stepheni, a dendrobatid frog with a nontransported nidicolous tadpole. Copeia, 1994, 747–750. https://doi.org/10.2307/1447191
Jungfer, K-H. & Schiesari, L.C. (1995) Description of a Central Amazonian and Guianan treefrog, genus Osteocephalus (Anura, Hylidae), with oophagous tadpoles. Alytes, 13, 1–13.
Jungfer, K.H. & Weygoldt, P. (1999) Biparental care in the tadpole feeding Amazonian treefrog Osteocephalus oophagus. Amphibia-Reptilia, 2, 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853899X00277
Junk, W.J., Bayley, P.B. & Sparks, R.E. (1989) The flood pulse concept in river-floodplain systems. In: Dodge, D.P. (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Large River Symposium. Canadian Special Publication for Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 106, 110–127.
Junk, W.J., Piedade, M.T.F., Schöngart, J., Cohn-Haft, M., Adeney, J.M. & Wittmann, F. (2011) A classification of major naturally-occurring Amazonian lowland wetlands. Wetlands, 31, 623–640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-011-0190-7
Kaefer, I.L. & Montanarin, A. (2011) Helicops angulatus (South American Watersnake). Diet. Herpetological Review, 42, 291.
Kenny, J.S. (1969) The Amphibia of Trinidad. Studies on the Fauna of Curaçao and Other Caribbean Islands. Hague, 29, 1–62.
Kolenc, F., Borteiro, C., Alcalde, L., Baldo, D., Cardozo, D. & Faivovich, J. (2008) Comparative larval morphology of eight species of Hypsiboas Wagler (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae) from Argentina and Uruguay, with a review of the larvae of this genus. Zootaxa, 1927, 1–66. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1927.1.1
Lacey, L.A. (1979) Predação em girinos por uma vespa e outras associações de insetos com ninhos de duas espécies de rãs da Amazônia. Acta Amazonica, 9, 755–762. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-43921979094755
Lamar, W.W. & Wild, E.R. (1995) Comments on the natural history of Lithodytes lineatus (Anura; Leptodactylidae), with a description of the tadpole. Herpetological Natural History 3, 135–143.
Lescure, J. (1975) Contribution a l’étude des amphibiens de Guyane Française. V. Reproduction de Phyllomedusa tomopterna (Cope) (Hylidae). Bulletin de la Societé Zoologique de France, 100, 117–125.
Lescure, J. (1976) Étude de deux têtards de Phyllobates (Dendrobatidae): P. femoralis (Boulenger) et P. pictus (Bibron). Bulletin de la Societé Zoologique de France, 101, 299–306.
Lescure, J. & Marty, C. (2000) Atlas des Amphibiens de Guyane. Patrimoines Naturels, 45, 1–388.
Lescure, J., Marty, V., Marty, C., Starace, F., Auber-Thomay, M. & Letellier, F. (1995) Contribution à l´etude des amphibians de Guyane Française. X. Les Phyllomedusa (Anura, Hylidae). Revue Française de Aquariologie, 22, 1–2.
Lima, A.P. (1992) The tadpole of Leptodactylus riveroi Heyer and Pyburn, 1983 (Anura: Leptodactylidae). Journal of Herpetology, 26, 91–93. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565032
Lima, A.P., Caldwell, J.P., Biavati, G. & Montanarin, A. (2010) A new species of Allobates (Anura: Aromobatidae) from Paleovárzea forest in Amazonas, Brazil. Zootaxa, 2337 (1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2337.1.1
Lima, A.P., Magnusson, W.E., Menin, M., Erdtmann, L.K., Rodrigues, D.J., Keller, C. & Hödl, W. (2012) Guia de Sapos da Reserva Adolpho Ducke, Amazônia Central/Guide to the frogs of Reserva Adolpho Ducke, Central Amazonia. 2nd Edition. Editora INPA, Manaus, 187 pp.
Lins, A.C.R., Magalhães, R.F., Costa, R.N., Brandão, R.A., Py-Daniel, T.R., Oliveira Miranda N.E., Maciel, N.M., Nomura, F. & Pezzuti, T.L. (2018) The larvae of two species of Bokermannohyla (Anura, Hylidae, Cophomantini) endemic to the highlands of Central Brazil. Zootaxa, 4527 (4), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4527.4.3
Lynch, J.D. (2006) The tadpoles of frogs and toads found in the lowlands of Northern Colombia. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 30, 443–457.
Lynch, J.D. & Suárez-Mayorga, A.M. (2011) Clave ilustrada de los renacuajos de las tierras bajas al Oriente de los Andes, con énfasis en Hylidae. Caldasia, 33, 235–270.
McDiarmid, R.W. & Altig, R. (1999) Introduction: the tadpole arena. In: McDiarmid, R.W. & Altig, R. (Eds.), Tadpoles: The Biology of Anuran Larvae. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 1–6.
Magnusson, W.E. & Hero, J-M. (1991) Predation and the evolution of complex oviposition behaviour in Amazon rainforest frogs. Oecologia, 86, 310–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00317595
Magnusson, W.E. & Windle, J. (1988) Marathon swimming to egg laying sites by “Bufo granulosus”. Journal of Herpetology, 22, 235–236. https://doi.org/10.2307/1564005
Magnusson, W.E., Lima, A.P., Hero, J.-M. & Araújo, M.C. (1999) The rise and fall of a population of Hyla boans: reproduction in a Neotropical gladiator frog. Journal of Herpetology, 33, 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565582
Martins, R.N. & Menin, M. (2021) Natural history notes of Rhinella proboscidea (Anura, Bufonidae) from a non-flooded forest in Central Amazonia. Cuadernos de Herpetología, 35 (1), 26–34.
Martins, M. (1988) Biologia reprodutiva de Leptodactylus fuscus em Boa Vista, Roraima (Amphibia: Anura). Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 48, 969–977.
Martins, M. & Moreira, G. (1991) The nest and tadpole of Hyla wavrini, Parker (Amphibia, Anura). Memórias do Instituto Butantan, 53, 197–204.
Martins, M. & Oliveira, M.E. (1998) Natural history of snakes in forests of the Manaus region, Central Amazonian, Brazil. Herpetological Natural History, 6, 78–150.
Menin, M, & Rodrigues, D.J. (2013) The terrestrial tadpole of Leptodactylus andreae (Anura, Leptodactylidae), a member of the Leptodactylus marmoratus species group. Zootaxa, 3683 (1), 92–94. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3683.1.7
Menin, M., Rodrigues, D.J. & Lima, A.P. (2006) The tadpole of Rhinella proboscidea (Anura: Bufonidae) with notes on adult reproductive behavior. Zootaxa, 1258, 47–56.
Menin, M., Rodrigues, D.J. & Lima, A.P. (2007) Clutches, tadpoles and advertisement calls of Synapturanus mirandaribeiroi and S. cf. salseri in Central Amazonia, Brazil. Herpetological Journal, 17, 86–91.
Menin, M., Waldez, F. & Lima, A.P. (2008) Temporal variation in the abundance and number of species of frogs in 10,000 ha of a forest in Central Amazonia, Brazil. South American Journal of Herpetology, 3, 68–81. https://doi.org/10.2994/1808-9798(2008)3[68:TVITAA]2.0.CO;2
Menin, M., Lima, A.P. & Rodrigues, D.J. (2009a) The tadpole of Vitreorana oyampiensis (Anura, Centrolenidae) in Central Amazonia, Brazil. Zootaxa, 2203 (1), 65–68. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2203.1.6
Menin, M., Almeida, A.P. & Rodrigues, D.J. (2009b) Reproductive aspects of Leptodactytus hylaedactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae), a member of the Leptodactylus marmoratus species group, with a description of tadpoles and calls. Journal of Natural History, 43, 2257–2270. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222930903097707
Menin, M., Lima, A.P. & Rodrigues, D.J. (2010) The tadpole of Leptodactylus pentadactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) from Central Amazonia. Zootaxa, 2508 (1), 65–68. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2508.1.5
Menin, M., Melo, L.S. & Lima, A.P. (2011a) The tadpole of Osteocephalus cabrerai (Anura: Hylidae) from central Amazonia, Brazil. Phyllomedusa, 10, 137–142. https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v10i2p137-142
Menin, M., Souza, L.S. & Rodrigues, D.J. (2011b) Tadpole and breeding habitats of Chiasmocleis shudikarensis (Anura, Microhylidae) in Central Amazonia, Brazil. South American Journal of Herpetology, 6, 223–228. https://doi.org/10.2994/057.006.0309
Menin, M., Pegorini, R.J., Carvalho, V.T., Rojas, R.R. & Gordo, M. (2014) The tadpole of Amazophrynella manaos Rojas, Carvalho, Gordo, Ávila, Farias and Hrbek, 2014 (Anura, Bufonidae) from the type locality and adjacent regions at Central Amazonia, Brazil. Zootaxa, 3826 (2), 393–396. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3826.2.9
Menin, M., Rossa-Feres, D.C., Rodrigues, D.J, Almeida, A.P., Pegorini, R.J. & Telles, D.O.C. (2015) Tadpoles of Central Amazonia: current knowledge and perspectives. In: Sant’Anna, B.S., Takeara, R. & Abegg, M.A. (Orgs.), Amazonian Resources: Microbiota, Fauna and Flora. Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp. 53–77.
Menin, M., Pinto, R.M.C., Pegorini, R.J. & Silva, M.R. (2017) Redescription of the tadpole of Ameerega hahneli (Boulenger, 1884) (Anura: Dendrobatidae) with notes on ontogenetic variations and development habitats. South American Journal of Herpetology, 12, 236–243. https://doi.org/10.2994/SAJH-D-17-00052.1
Menin, M., Almeida, A.P., Pedroso-Santos, F., Sanches, P.R. & Costa-Campos, C.E. (2020) Description of the tadpole of Dendropsophus haraldschultzi (Bokermann, 1962) (Anura: Hylidae), with comments on reproductive biology. Zootaxa, 4780 (3), 594–600. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4780.3.11
Mijares-Urrutia, A. (1993) The tadpole of Hyla granosa (Anura: Hylidae) from southeastern Venezuela. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 66, 143–147.
Miranda-Ribeiro, A. (1926) Notas para servirem ao estudo dos Gymnobatrachios (Anura) Brazileiros. Tomo primeiro. Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, 27, 1–227.
Moreira, G. & Lima, A.P. (1991) Seasonal patterns of juvenile recruitment and reproduction in four species of leaf litter frogs in Central Amazonia. Herpetologica, 47, 295–300.
Neckel-Oliveira, S. (2004) Effects of landscape change on clutches of Phyllomedusa tarsius, a neotropical treefrog. Biological Conservation, 118, 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2003.07.013
Neckel-Oliveira, S. & Wachlevski, M. (2004) Predation on the arboreal eggs of three Phyllomedusa frog species in Central Amazônia. Journal of Herpetology, 38, 84–88. https://doi.org/10.1670/162-03A
Ouboter, P.E. & Jairam, R. (2012) Amphibians of Suriname. Brill, Leiden and Boston, 376 pp. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004208001
Pezzuti, T.L., Fortes Leite, F.S., Rossa-Feres, D.C. & Garcia, P.C.A. (2021) The tadpoles of the Iron Quadrangle, southeastern Brazil: a baseline for larval knowledge and anuran conservation in a diverse and threatened region. South American Journal of Herpetology, 22, 1–107. https://doi.org/10.2994/SAJH-D-20-00042.1
Pianka, E.R. (1975) Niche relations of desert lizards. In: Cody, M.L. & Diamond, J.M. (Eds.), Ecology and Evolution of Communities. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp. 292–314.
Pinto, R.C. & Menin, M. (2017) Aspects of the natural history of Leptodactylus knudseni Heyer, 1972 (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in a pristine forest in Central Amazonia, Brazil, with comments on ontogenetic variation of its tadpoles. Journal of Natural History, 51, 2523–2534. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2017.1371348
Pinto, R.C., Py-Daniel, S.S. & Menin, M. (2013) Redescription of the tadpole of Phyllomedusa bicolor (Anura: Hylidae) from Central Amazonia. Journal of Herpetology, 8, 67–72. https://doi.org/10.2994/SAJH-D-13-00003.1
Prado, V.H.M. & Rossa-Feres, D.C. (2014) The influence of niche and neutral processes on a Neotropical anuran metacommunity. Austral Ecology, 30, 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.12114
Pyburn, W.F. (1967) Breeding and larval development of the hylid frog Phrynohyas spilomma in Southern Veracruz, México. Herpetologica, 23, 184–194.
Rada de Martinez, D. (1990) Contribución al conocimiento de las larvas de anfibios de Venezuela. Memoria de la Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle, 49, 391–403.
Ribeiro, J.E.L.S., Nelson, B.W. Silva, M.F., Martins, L.S.S. & Hopkins, M. (1996) Reserva Florestal Ducke: diversidade e composição da flora vascular. Acta Amazonica, 24, 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-43921994242030
Ribeiro, J.E.L.S., Hopkins, M.J.G., Vicentini, A., Sothers, C.A., Costa, M.A.S., Brito, J.M., Souza, M.A.D., Martins, L.H.P., Lohmann, L.G., Assunção, P.A.C.L., Pereira, E.C., Silva, C.F., Mesquita, M.R. & Procópio, L.C. (1999) Flora da Reserva Ducke: Guia de identificação das plantas vasculares de uma floresta de terrafirme na Amazônia Central. INPA, Manaus, 816 pp.
Ringler, E., Pasukonis, A., Firch, W.T., Huber, L., Hödl, W. & Ringler, M. (2015) Flexible compensation of uniparental care: female poison frogs take over when males disappear. Behavioral Ecology, 26, 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arv069
Rodrigues, D.J., Menin, M. & Lima, A.P. (2007) Redescription of the tadpole of Leptodactylus rhodomystax (Anura: Leptodactylidae) with natural history notes. Zootaxa, 1509 (1), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1509.1.6
Rodrigues, D.J., Menin, M., Lima, A.P. & Mokross, K.S. (2008) Tadpole and vocalizations of Chiasmocleis hudsoni (Anura, Microhylidae) in Central Amazonia, Brazil. Zootaxa, 1680 (1), 55–58. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1680.1.3
Rodrigues, D.J., Lima, A.P., Magnusson, W.E. & Costa, F.R.C. (2010) Temporary pond availability and tadpole species composition in Central Amazonia. Herpetologica, 66, 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1655/09-020R2.1
Rodriguez, L.O. (1992) Structure et organisation du peuplement d’anoures de Cocha Cashu, Parc National Manu, Amazonie péruvienne. Revue d’Écologie (Terre et Vie), 47, 151–197.
Rodríguez, L.O. & Duellman, W.E. (1994) Guide to the frogs of the Iquitos region, Amazonian Peru. The University of Kansas, Natural History Museum, Special Publication, 22, 1–80. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.7937
Rojas-Ahumada, D.P. & Menin, M. (2010) Composition and abundance of anurans in riparian and non-riparian areas in a forest in Central Amazonia, Brasil. South American Journal of Herpetology, 5, 157–167. https://doi.org/10.2994/057.005.0210
Rojas, R.R., Fouquet, A., Ron, S.R., Hernández-Ruz, E.J., Melo-Sampaio, P.R., Chaparro, J.C., Vogt, R.C., Carvalho, V.T.de, Pinheiro, L.C., Avila, R.W., Farias, I.P., Gordo, M. & Hrbek, T. (2018) A Pan-Amazonian species delimitation: high species diversity within the genus Amazophrynella (Anura: Bufonidae). PeerJ- the Journal of Life and Environmental Sciences, 6, e4941. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4941
Ron, S.R. (2000) Biogeographic area relationships of lowland Neotropical rainforest based on raw distributions of vertebrate groups. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 71, 379–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01265.x
Rossa-Feres, D.C. & Nomura, F. (2006) Characterization and taxonomic key for tadpoles (Amphibia: Anura) from the northwestern region of São Paulo State, Brazil. Biota Neotropica, 6, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032006000100014
Rossa-Feres, D.C., Sawaya, R.J., Faivovich, J., Giovanelli, J.G., Brasileiro, C.A., Schiesari, L., Alexandrino, J.M.B. & Haddad, C.F.B. (2011) Anfíbios do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil: conhecimento atual e perspectivas. Biota Neotropica, 11, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032011000500004
Rossa-Feres, D.C., Venesky, M., Nomura, F., Eterovick, P.C., Vera Candioti, M.F., Menin, M., Juncá, F.A., Schiesari, L., Haddad, C.F.B., Garey, M.V., dos Anjos, L. & Wassersug, R.J. (2015) Taking tadpole biology to the 21st century: a consensus paper from the First Tadpoles International Workshop. Herpetologia Brasileira, 4, 35–59.
Santana, D.J., Queiroz, S.S., Wanderley, P.S., São-Pedro, V.A., Leite, F.S.F. & Garda, A.A. (2013) Calls and tadpoles of the species of Lysapsus (Anura, Hylidae, Pseudae). Amphibia-Reptilia, 34, 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685381-00002885
Savage, J.M. (1960) Geographic variation in the tadpole of the toad, Bufo marinus. Copeia, 1960, 233–236. https://doi.org/10.2307/1439663
Schiesari, L.C. (1996) Territorialidade e Vocalizações em Eleutherodactylus fenestratus
(Steindachner) (Amphibia, Anura, Leptodactylidae). MSc Thesis. Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 89 pp.
Schiesari, L.C. & Moreira, G. (1996) The tadpole of Phrynohyas coriacea (Hylidae), with comments on the species’ reproduction. Journal of Herpetology, 30, 404–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565179
Schiesari, L.C., Grillitsch, B. & Vogel, C. (1996) Comparative morphology of phytotelmonous and pond-dwelling larvae of four neotropical treefrog species (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae, Osteocephalus oophagus, O. taurinus, Phrynohyas resinifictrix, P. venulosa). Alytes, 13, 109–139. Erratum at Alytes, 14, 127–128.
Schiesari, L., Gordo, M. & Hödl, W. (2003) Treeholes as calling, breeding, and developmental sites for the Amazonian canopy frog, Phrynohyas resinifictrix (Hylidae). Copeia, 2003, 263–272.
Schiesari, L., Zuanon, J., Azevedo-Ramos, C., Garcia, M., Gordo, M., Messias, M. & Vieira, E.M. (2003b) Macrophyte rafts as dispersal vectors for vertebrates in the lower Solimões River, Central Amazonia. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 19, 333–336. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467403003365
Schiesari, L., Grillitsch, B. & Grillitsch, H. (2007) Biogeographic biases in research and their consequences for linking amphibian declines to pollution. Conservation Biology, 21, 465–471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00616.x
Schiesari, L., Ilha, P., Negri, D.D.B., Prado, P.I. & Grillitsch, B. (2020) Ponds, puddles, floodplains and dams in the Upper Xingu Basin: could we be witnessing the ´lentification´ of deforested Amazonia? Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, 18, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2020.05.001
Schlüter, A. & Regös, J. (1981) Lithodytes lineatus (Schneider 1799) (Amphibia, Leptodactylidae) as a dweller in nests of the leaf cutting ant Atta cephalotes (Linnaeus 1758) (Hymenoptera, Attini). Amphibia-Reptilia, 2, 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853881X00159
Schlüter, A. & Salas, A.W. (1991) Reproduction, tadpoles, and ecological aspects of three syntopic microhylid species from Peru (Amphibia: Microhylidae). Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde, Serie A (Biologie), 458, 1–17.
Schoener, T.W. (1974) Resource partitioning in ecological communities. Science, 175, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4145.27
Schulze, A., Jansen, M. & Köhler, G. (2015) Tadpole diversity of Bolivia’s lowland anuran communities: molecular identification, morphological characterisation, and ecological assignment. Zootaxa, 4016 (1), 1–111. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4016.1.1
Silva, F.R., Candeira, C.P. & Rossa-Feres, D.C. (2012) Dependence of anuran diversity on environmental descriptors in farmland ponds. Biodiversity and Conservation, 21, 1411–1424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-012-0252-z
Silva, M.I., Schiesari, L. & Menin, M. (2017) The egg clutch and tadpole of Rhinella merianae (Gallardo, 1965) (Anura: Bufonidae) from Central Amazonia, Brazil. Zootaxa, 4294 (1), 145–150. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4294.1.12
Silva, W.R. & Giaretta, A.A. (2009) On the natural history of Leptodactylus syphax with comments on the evolution of reproductive features in the L. pentadactylus species group (Anura, Leptodactylidae). Journal of Natural History, 43, 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222930802484618
Silverstone, P.A. (1976) A revision of the poison arrow frogs of the genus Phyllobates Bibron in Sagra (Family Dendrobatidae). Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Science Bulletin, 27, 1–53.
Simões, P.I. & Lima, A.P. (2012). The tadpole of Allobates sumtuosus (Moralles, ‘2000’ 2002) (Anura: Aromobatidae) from its type locality at Reserva Biológica do Rio Trombetas, Pará, Brazil. Zootaxa, 3499 (1), 86–88. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3499.1.7
Simões, P.I., Rojas-Runjaic, F.J.M., Gagliardi-Urrutia, G. & Castroviejo-Fisher, S.J. (2019) Five new country records of Amazonian anurans for Brazil, with notes on morphology, advertisement calls, and natural history. Herpetology Notes, 12, 211–219.
Sioli, H. (1985) Amazônia. Fundamentos de Ecologia da Maior Região de Florestas Tropicais. Vozes, Petrópolis, 72 pp.
Souza, M.B. (2005) Anfíbios: Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá e Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre. Editora do Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas—Unicamp, Campinas, 77 pp.
Srivastava, D.S., Kolasa, J., Bengtsson, J., Gonzalez, A., Lawler, S.P., Miller, T.E., Munguia, P., Romanuk, T., Schneider, D.C., Kurtis, M. & Trzcinski, M.K. (2004) Are natural microcosms useful model systems for ecology? Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 19, 379–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.04.010
Strauß, A., Reeve, E., Randrianiaina, R.-D., Vences, M. & Glos, J. (2010) The world’s richest tadpole communities show functional redundancy and low functional diversity: ecological data on Madagascar’s stream-dwelling amphibian larvae. BMC Ecology, 10, 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6785-10-12
Strauß, A., Randrianiaina, R.-D., Vences, M. & Glos, J. (2013) Species distribution and assembly patterns of frog larvae in rainforest streams of Madagascar. Hydrobiologia, 702, 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1301-z
Suárez-Mayorga, Á.M. & Lynch, J.D. (2001) Los renacuajos colombianos de Sphaenorhynchus (Hylidae), descripciones, anotaciones sistemáticas y ecológicas. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 25, 411–420.
Telles, D.O.C., Vaz, S.A.F. & Menin, M. (2013) Reproductive biology, size and diet of Hypsiboas cinerascens (Anura: Hylidae) in two urban forest fragments in Central Amazonia, Brazil. Phyllomedusa - Journal of Herpetology, 12, 69–76. https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v12i1p69-76
Tocher, M.D. (1998) Diferenças na composição de espécies de sapos entre três tipos de floresta e campo de pastagem na Amazônia central. In: Gascon, C. & Montinho, P. (Eds.), Floresta Amazônica: Dinâmica, Regeneração e Manejo. Editora INPA, Manaus, pp. 219–233.
Toft, C.A. (1985) Resource partitioning in amphibians and reptiles. Copeia, 1985, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.2307/1444785
Toft, C.A. & Duellman, W.E. (1979) Anurans of the lower Río Llullapichis, Amazonian Peru: a preliminary analysis of community structure. Herpetologica, 35, 71–77.
Trueb, L. & Cannatella, D. (1986) Systematics, morphology, and phylogeny of genus Pipa (Anura: Pipidae). Herpetologica, 42, 412–449.
Tsuji-Nishikido, B.M. & Menin, M. (2011) Distribution of frogs in riparian areas of an urban forest fragment in Central Amazonia. Biota Neotropica, 11, 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032011000200007
Vellend, M. (2010) Conceptual synthesis in community ecology. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 85, 183–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/652373
Verdade, V.K., Schiesari, L.C. & Bertoluci, J.A. (2000) Diet of juvenile aquatic caecilians, Typhlonectes compressicauda (Gymnophiona, Typhlonectidae). Journal of Herpetology, 34, 291–293. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565428
Vizotto, L.D. (1967) Desenvolvimento de anuros da região norte-ocidental do Estado de São Paulo. PhDThesis. Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 69 pp.
Waldez, F., Menin, M. & Vogt, R.C. (2013) Diversidade de anfíbios e répteis Squamata na região do baixo rio Purus, Amazônia Central, Brasil. Biota Neotropica, 13, 300–316. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032013000100029
Wassersug, R.J. (1973) Aspects of social behavior in anuran larvae. In: Vial, J.L. (Ed.), Evolutionary Biology of the Anurans. University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri, pp. 273–297.
Wassersug, R.J. (1980) Internal oral features of larvae from eight anuran families: functional, systematic, evolutionary and ecological considerations. Miscellaneous Publications Museum of Natural History University of Kansas, 68, 1–146. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.16230
Wells, K.D. (1977) The social behavior of anuran amphibians. Animal Behavior, 25, 666–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(77)90118-X
Wells, K.D. (2007) The ecology and behavior of amphibians. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1400 pp.
Werner, E.E. (1998) Ecological experiments and a research program in community ecology. In: Resetarits, W.J. & Bernardo, J. (Eds.), Experimental Ecology: Issues and Perspectives. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 3–26.
Weygoldt, P. (1980) Zur Fortpflanzungsbiologie von Phyllobates femoralis (Boulenger) im Terrarium (Amphibia: Salientia: Dendrobatidae). Salamandra, 16, 215–226.
Wilbur, H.M. (1997) Experimental ecology of food webs: complex systems in temporary ponds. Ecology, 78, 2279–2302. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[2279:EEOFWC]2.0.CO;2
Wild, E.R. (1992) The tadpoles of Hyla fasciata and H. allenorum, with a key to the tadpoles of the Hyla parviceps group (Anura: Hylidae). Herpetologica, 48, 439–447.
Zimmerman, B.L. & Bogart, J.P. (1988) Ecology and calls of four species of Amazonian Forest frogs. Journal of Herpetology, 22, 97–108. https://doi.org/10.2307/1564361
Zimmerman, B.L. & Simberloff, D. (1996) An historical interpretation of habitat use by frogs in a Central Amazonian forest. Journal of Biogeography, 23, 27–46. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1996.d01-218.x